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THE  GEOLOGY  OP  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA 


'Ainsi,  j'e'taie  soutenu  dans  ce  travail  par  I'inte'rfit  e"gal  qu'il  promettait  d'avoir,  et 
pour  la  science  ge'ne'rale  de  anatomic,  base  esseutielle  de  toutes  celles  qui  traitent  des  corps 
organises,  et  pour  I'histoire  physique  du  globe,  ce  fondement  de  la  mine'ralogie,  de  la  ge"o- 
graphie,  et  mcmc  on  peut  le  dire,  de  I'histoire  des  hommes,  et  de  tout  ce  qu'il  leur  importe 
le  plus  de  saroir  relativement  a  eux-m6mes.'  — CUVIEB,  Ditcours  sur  Us  Rtvolutiont. 


GEOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS   IN 


SOUTH   AUSTRALIA: 


PRINCIPALLY    IK    THE    DISTRICT    SOUTH-EAST    OF    ADELAIDE. 


EEV.    JULIAN   EDMUND    WOODS 


F.G.S.,  F.E.S.V.,  F.P.S.,  &c. 


roe  B«'a  rf,  ayijiv  ptv  svroXrj  Ai6f 
rtXoe  St}  Kovdkv  tfiiroduv  in. 

AESCHYLUS,  Prom.  Vinct.  13. 


LONDON: 
LONGMAN,  GREEN,  LONGMAN,  ROBERTS,  &   GREEN. 

MELBOURNE,  VICTORIA :  H.  T.  DWIGHT. 
1862. 


EARTH 

SCIENCES 

LIBRARY 


LONBOK 

PRINTED     BY    SPOTTISWOODB    AND     CO. 
NEW-STBEET  BQTJABB 


•     •     «•   •  .*•    • 


TO 


N.  A,  WOODS,  ESQ. 


AUTHOR  01? 
1  THE   PAST   CAMPAIGN '    '  THE   PBINCE   OF  WAJ.ES   lit   CANADA  '  ETC. 

THIS  WORK 

IS   AFFECTIONATELY  INSCEIBED  BY 
HIS    BROTHER. 


PREFACE. 


Work  needs  a  few  words  of  explanation. 
It  has  been  written  as  much  for  circulation  in 
the  Colonies  as  for  home.  In  the  former,  the  num- 
ber of  scientific  readers  is  comparatively  few, 
though  in  no  part  of  the  world,  perhaps,  is  a 
greater  interest  felt  in  matters  of  the  kind.  For 
this  reason,  the  Author  has  entered  more  into  detail, 
and  given  more  explanations,  than  he  would  have 
done  had  the  Work  been  intended  only  for  men  of 
Science.  More  than  this  —  many  quotations  and 
extracts  from  the  works  of  other  writers  on  Geology 
are  inserted.  Part  of  them  are  necessary  portions 
of  the  descriptions  given ;  the  rest,  for  the  sake  of 
comparison  between  what  is  observed  in  Australia 
and  what  is  known  in  other  regions.  Not  the  least 
important  portion  of  what  a  geological  student  has 
to  acquire,  is  how  to  make  use  of  what  he  reads. 


Vlll  PKEFACE. 

In  a  country  where  so  much  is  to  be  observed,  it 
may  prove  useful  to  see  how  the  Author  has  done 
so.  This  is  another  object  of  the  quotations  ;  but 
none  have  been  inserted,  unless  as  illustrating 
theories  which  might  seem  startling  without  some 
such  support. 

For  the  rest,  the  Author  is  sensible  that  there 
are  many  imperfections  in  the  book,  in  palliation 
of  which  readers  will  kindly  consider  the  circum- 
stances under  which  it  was  written.  All  the  diffi- 
culties to  be  surmounted  need  not  be  mentioned. 
Yet  it  may  be  stated,  that  while  the  missionary 
duties  of  a  large  district  (22,000  square  miles)  left 
but  little  spare  time,  it  was  compiled  without  the 
assistance  of  any  museum  or  library  to  'which  re- 
ference could  be  had,  or  the  aid  of  any  scientific 
men  nearer  than  England  whose  advice  would  have 
been  most  useful.  There  may,  accordingly,  be 
many  errors,  and  there  would  have  been  more  but 
for  the  kindness  of  several  gentlemen  in  connection 
with  the  Geological  Society  at  home. 

One  word,  in  conclusion,  with  regard  to  the  En- 
gravings. The  views  are  from  photographs.  The 
fossils,  &c.,  are  from  drawings  by  Mr.  Alexander 
Burkitt,  of  Williamstown  Observatory,  Melbourne 


PKEFACE.  ix 

(late  of  the  Isle  of  Wight).  This  opportunity  is 
taken  of  returning  very  grateful  thanks  to  that 
gentleman  for  his  exertions  in  perfecting  the  illus- 
tration of  the  Work. 

PENOLA,  SOTTTH  ATJSTKALIA: 
November  15,  1861. 


CONTENTS. 

PREFACE  >         .  '      ...        .         .         .    Page  rii. 

CHAPTER  I. 
INTRODUCTION    .  1 


CHAPTER  II. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Preliminary  Observations  —  Nature  of  New  Country  known  from 
the  Rocks — Geological  Queries  to  be  answered  by  Australia  — 
General  Description  of  Australia  —  Former  Separation  of  the 
Continent  —  South  Australian  Ranges  — The  Coast  of  Australia 
—  Australian  Cordillera  —  South  Australian  Chain  —  Age  of 
Rocks  in  Australia  —  Mineral  Riches —  Great  Barrier  Reef — 
General  View  of  Australian  Geology  .  «  ,  .  12 

CHAPTER  HI. 

THE   SOILS. 

Dependence  of  Scenery  on  Geology  —  Description  of  the  Dis- 
trict—  Swamps,  their  Localities  and  Peculiarities — Ridges  and 
their  Varieties  — Plains  —  Heath  and  Scrub — Floia  of  the  Dis- 
trict—  Sand  and  its  Origin — Varieties  of  Soils —  Honeysuckle 
Country —  Limestone  Biscuits  —  Broken  Country  —  Magnesian 
Fermentation  —  Distribution  of  Trees  —  Causes  favourable  to 


Xli  CONTENTS- 

their  Growth  —  Living  Inhabitants  of  the  Swamps  —  Lagoons 
at  Guichen  Bay  —  Deposits  of  Bones  on  Banks  of  Swamps  — 
In  Crevices  —  Conclusion  .  .  .  .  .  Page  25 

CHAPTER  IV. 

THE    ROCKS. 

Strata  of  the  Plains  —  Their  Uniformity  —  Character  of  the 
Rocks  —  Horizontality  of  the  Beds  —  Distribution  of  Fossils — 
Sand  Pipes  —  Native  Wells  —  Flint  Layers  —  Their  Origin — 
Separation  of  Silica  —  Iron  Pyrites  and  Rock  Salt —  Salt 
Pans  —  Fossil  Bryozoa  —  Aggregation  of  Fossils  —  Age  of 
the  Beds  —  Corals  —  How  deposited  —  Prevailing  Bryozoa  — 
Comparison  of  these  Beds  with  the  Remains  of  Coral  Reefs 
—  Difficulty  as  to  th<3  Nature  of  Coral  —  Extent  of  these 
Beds  .  .  .^,  .  -  .  .  .  .  .58 

CHAPTER  V. 

AN    UNFINISHED   CONTINENT. 

Extent  of  the  Formation  —  Murray  Cliffs  —  Sturt's  List  of 
Fossils  —  Description  of  the  Cliffs  —  Extent  of  the  Formation 
in  a  Westerly  Direction  —  Sturt's  Account  of  the  Formation 
to  the  North  —  Flinders'  Description  of  the  South  —  Other 
Observations — Boundaries  to  the  Eastward- — Tasmania — Ori- 
gin of  the  Formation — Showing  Subsidence  of  a  large  Area — 
Darwin's  Theory  —  Application  of  this  to  the  Mount  Gambier 
Beds — Objections  answered  —  Why  no  Remains  of  Atolls  are 
found  —  Probably  some  Remains  at  Swede's  Flat  —  Probable 
Temperature  of  the  Sea — Geological  Period — Analogies  in  the 
present  State  of  the  Earth's  Crust  with  former  Geological 
Epochs  —  Analogy  of  Australia  to  the  Chalk  —  Retarded  State 
of  its  Zoology  —  Bad  Adaptability  as  a  Residence  for  Man  — 
Concluding  Remarks .  .  .  .  .  .  .103 

CHAPTER  VI. 

HOW   THE    REEF    ENDED. 

Cessation  of  Coralline  Formation  —  Description  of  Upper  Crag 
—  Extent  of  it  —  Derived  from  an  Ocean  Current  —  Guichen 


CONTENTS.  Xlll 

Bay  Beds  —  Absence  of  Fossils  in  them —  Cape  Grant  Beds 

—  Strata    there    described  —  Trap    Eock   and    Amygdala  — 
Similarity  of  Upper  Beds    to     Upper     Crag   in   England  — 
Singular   Formation   near  the    Trap  —  Localities   where  the 
Upper  Crag  is  found  —  Broken  Fauna  —  Reefs  left  of  Crag  — 
Concretions  not  owing  to  Casts  of  Trees  —  Decomposition  of 
the  Rock —  Blow-holes — Denudation  and  Upheaval  —  What 
becomes  of  Detritus  —  History  of  the  Deposit  —  Denudation 

—  Coralline    Crag    of    Suffolk  —  Water-level  —  Deep-eea 
Soundings.         .......     Page  148 

CHAPTER  VII. 

THE  BEEF'S  SUBSEQUENT  HISTORY. 

Preliminary  Observations  —  Aspect  of  the  Australian  Coast  — 
Sand  Formation  of  Cornwall  —  Origin  of  Australian  Sand  — 
Its  Composition  —  Upper  Limestone  and  Shell  Deposits  — 
Localities  in  which  the  latter  occur -7- Stone  Hut  Range  — 
Observations  on  the  Fauna  of  the  Deposit  —  Lakes  on  the 
Coast  —  The  Coorong  —  Lake  Hawdon  —  Lake  Eliza  —  Lake 
St.  Clair  —  Lake  George — Lake  Bonney  —  German  Flat  — 
Mouth  of  the  Murray  —  Upheaval  of  the  Australian  Coast  — 
This  proved  from  the  Coast  Line  —  From  South  Australian 
Rivers,  and  especially  the  Reedy  Creek  —  Upheaval  still  going 
on  —  Periods  of  Rest  —  Six  Chains  of  Hills  —  Terraces  formed 
from  old  Sea-beaches  —  Sand  Dunes  not  hardening  into  Stone 

—  Similar  Formations  in  Suffolk  —  Lake  Superior  and  Bahia 
Blanca — Why  generally  associated  with  Sandstone       .      181 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

EXTINCT   VOLCANOES. 

Preliminary  Remarks  —  Absence   of  Volcanoes  from   Australia 

—  Probability  of  less  Disturbance  in   Southern  Hemisphere 

—  Mount   Gambier  —  By   whom    described  —  The   Lakes  — 
Their  Peculiarities  —  The  Valley  Lake  —  The  Punch-bowl  — 
The  Middle  Lake  —  The  Blue  Lake  —  Mode  of  the  various 
Eruptions — Volcano  one  of    Subsidence,    not    Upheaval  — 
Minerals  found  in  the  Craters — Period  of  the  Eruption  — Pro- 
bability of  its  Extinction — Recapitulation  .  i       224 


CONTENTS. 
CHAPTER  IX. 

VOLCANOES  —  CONTINUED. 

Mount  Shanck — Dissimilarity  of  Volcanoes  —  Importance  of 
describing  them  —  Description  of  the  Country  —  Well- shaped 
Holes  —  Valley  —  Australian  Flora  —  Small  Lake  —  Vol- 
canic Bombs  —  The  Great  Cone  —  Remains  of  former 
Crater  —  How  more  recent  Cone  was  formed  —  Its  Appear- 
ance and  Similarity  to  Vesuvius  and  Etna  —  Indentation  in 
the  Side — Evidence  of  former  Peak  —  Lava  Stream  — 
Curious  Mode  in  which  it  is  heaped  —  Derived  from  older 
Crater  —  Cause  of  heaping  up  of  Scori®  —  Parallel  Instances 
—  Connection  of  Mounts  Gambier  and  Shanck  —  Conclu- 
sion   '••-'."•'  .  -  Page  261 

CHAPTER  X. 

THE   SMALLER   VOLCANOES. 

Southern  End  of  the  District  only  volcanic  —  Lake  Leake  —  Lake 
Edward  —  Craters  of  Subsidence — Leake's  Bluff — Mount 
Muirhead  —  Mount  Burr  —  Mount  M'Intyre  and  Mount  Ed- 
ward —  Line  of  Disturbance  connected  probably  with  Victorian 
Craters  —  Period  of  their  Duration  and  the  Time  which  has 
elapsed  since  their  Extinction  —  Submarine  Craters  —  Julia 
Percy  Island  —  Controversy  on  Craters  of  Elevation  and  Sub- 
sidence —  Both  applicable  here  —  Trap  not  always  connected 
with  Gold  282 


CHAPTER  XL 

CAVES. 

Denudation  and  its  Effects  —  Caves  in  general  —  Bones  in  Caves 
— Caves  made  by   Fissures  —  How  Bones  came   into   them 

—  Parallel  Instance  in   South  Australia  —  Course  of  Eivers 
in  Caves  —  Caves    in   the    Morea  —  The  Katavothra  —  The 
Swede's  Flat  —  Osseous  Deposits  —  How  Bones  become  pre- 
served in  Rivers  —  Caves  which  have  been  Dens  of  Animals 

—  Kirkdale  Cave  —  Beach  Caves  —  Paviland  Cave  —  Austra- 
lian Caves  with  the  Remains  of  Aborigines  —  Egress  Caves  — 
The  Guacharo  Caves  —  Other  Caves —  Conclusion  299 


CONTENTS.  XV 

CHAPTER  XII. 

CAVES. 

Caves  in  general  —  Caves  at  Mosquito  Plains  —  First  Cave  — 
Second  Cave  —  Third  Cave  —  Dried  Corpse  of  a  Native  — 
Robertson's  Parlour  —  Connection  between  it  and  deeper 
Caves  —  Coralline  Limestone  —  Bones  —  Bones  of  Rodents 

—  Other  Bones  —  Manner  in  which  the  Caves  were  formed  — 
Former  Lake  now  drained  by  a  Creek  —  Evidence  of  Floods 

—  No  Evidence  of  the  Deluge  —  Conclusion      .         Page  321 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

CAVES. 

Caves  —  Mount  Burr  Caves  —  Vansittart's  Cave  —  Mitchell's 
Cave  —  The  Drop-Drop  —  Bones  of  a  large  Kangaroo  — 
Ellis's  Cave  —  Underground  Drainage  —  Caves  at  Limestone 
Ridge  —  Other  Caves —  Conclusion  ....  353 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
Concluding  Remarks     ......          .     367 


APPENDIX  I.    .  .  •     373 

APPENDIX  H.  ..:....     386 


LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Caves,  Mosquito  Plains.     Third  Chamber  .      frontispiece 

Map  of  South  Australia     .              .  .  to  face  page     1 

Fossils  Bryozoa     .              .              .  .                  „         ,,     73 

Pecten       .             .             .             .  .  .  .74 

Retepora    .             .             .             .  .  .  .       ib. 

Terebratula  compta             .             .  .  .  ib. 

Cellepora  gambierensis       .              .  .  .  ib. 

Spatangus  Forbesii              .              .  .  .  .75 

Pecten  coarctatus  (?)          .             .  .  .  .76 

Cidaris       .              .              .              .  .  .  ib. 

Clypeaster               .              .              .  .  .  .77 

Cast  of  Trochus     .              .              .  .  .  ib. 

Echinolampus        .              .             .  .  ,  ib. 

Cast  of  Conus  .  ...  .  .  .78 

,,      Mitra          .              .              .  .  .  ib. 

„      Pyrula       .              .              .  .  .  ib. 

„      Turbo  (?)   ...  ib. 

Teeth  of  Shark  (Oxyrrhinus  Woodsii)  .  .  .80 

Spine  of  Cidaris     .              .              .  .  .  .81 

Nautilus  ziczac       .              .              .  .  .  .83 

Spatangus  Forbesii              .              .  .  .  .       ib. 

Cast  of  Turritella  terebralis  ....       ib. 

Murex  asper          .             .             .  .  .  ib. 

Cellepora  gambierensis       .              .  .  .  .85 

Branching  Axis  of  Cellepora  gambierensis  .  .91 

Fascicularia  (?),  South  Australian  Coast  .  .  .  187 

Astraea,  Ditto  .  .  .  ib. 

Shell,  Ditto  .  .190 

a 


XV111  LIST   OF   ILLUSTEATIONS. 

Mount  Gambler,  Blue  Lake  Crater  ;          to  face  page  228 

„  „         Middle  and  Valley  Lake  Craters     „         „     230 

Pecten  coarctatus  .  .  .  .  .     255 

Caves,  Mosquito  Plains.    Second  Chamber  to  face  page  325 

Skull  of  Rodent,  from  Caves          .  .  .  .336 

Tipper  Jaw            .          :-i»T;  •             •             •            •       z^* 

Lower  Jaw            .             .  .       ib. 

Teeth  of  Upper  Jaw,  enlarged  ....       ib. 

„       Lower  Jaw,  enlarged  ....       ib. 

Kangaroo  Bones    .             .  .                         .             ,361 


1.  Hills  of  porphyry. 
2-2.  Rocks  composed  of  shelly 
sand. 

3.  Shells  of  existing  species  are 

found  in  the  strata  of  the 
plains  running  parallel  with 
the  coast. 

4.  Natural  fountain. 

5.  Trap-dyke. 

6.  Lake  Leake  (2  craters). 

7.  7.  Caves. 

8.  Underground  river.  GUICHEN 

9.  Mount  Shanck 

10.  Mount  Gambier  (with  its  two 

craters). 

1 1.  Large  caves  containing  bones, 

&c. 

12.  Mounts  Burr, M'Intyre,  Leake, 

and  Muirhead. 

13.  Swede's  Flat, 


GEOLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS 


IN 


SOUTH    AUSTRALIA 

CHAPTER  I. 
INTRODUCTION. 

MANY  years  ago  (1683),  Dr.  Lister  proposed  to 
the  Royal  Society  that  a  map  of  the  soils  of 
England  should  be  prepared;  and  he  urged,  as  a 
reason  for  it,  that  if  it  were  noted  how  far  these 
extended,  and  the  limits  of  each  soil  appeared  on  a 
map,  something  more  might  be  comprehended  than 
he  could  possibly  foresee,  which  would  make  the 
labour  well  worth  the  pains.  '  For  I  am  of  opinion,' 
said  he,  4  such  upper  soil,  if  natural,  infallibly  pro- 
duces such  under-minerals,  and,  for  the  most  part, 
in  order;  but  this  I  leave  to  the  industry  of  fu- 
ture times.'  Geology  was  then  in  its  infancy.  Its 
only  claim  to  the  position  of  a  science  was  the  pos- 
session of  many  theories,  some  highly  improbable, 
and  none  very  consistent  with  the  other.  How- 
ever, what  was  thought  the  guess  of  Dr.  Lister  was 

B 


• 

«    «•' 

INTRODUCTION. 


acted  upon,  and  found  to  be  a  prophecy.  A  map 
was  made,  and  particular  soils  were  found  to  pro- 
duce certain  minerals,  or,  more  correctly,  certain 
minerals  were  always  found  associated  with  certain 
rocks,  whose  decomposition  gave  rise  to  particular 
soils.  This  was  the  first  effort  of  geology  to 
become  practical,  and  already,  in  the  distance, 
was  seen  utility.  '  The  industry  of  later  times  ' 
extended  these  observations,  and,  after  investiga- 
tions in  many  places  in  the  world  which  took  time 
to  accomplish,  a  general  classification  of  rocks  and 
minerals  was  made.  Geology  became  thus  pos- 
sessed of  certain  principles,  and,  to  make  these 
of  paramount  utility,  all  that  was  wanted  was  an 
extensive  field  on  which  they  could  be  applied. 

A  new  country,  whose  mineral  riches  were  un- 
known, was  required,  and  this  was  found  in  Aus- 
tralia. Its  rocks  were  examined,  and  found  to 
correspond  with  similar  rocks  in  the  old  country  ; 
there  was  an  easy  conclusion  to  be  drawn,  namely, 
that  they  contained  similar  minerals.  A  search 
was  made,  and  was  repaid  by  an  inexhaustible 
supply  of  coal,  iron*,  lead,  copper,  silver,  and  gold. 

From  this  statement,  it  will  appear  very  evident 
that  geology  is  largely  indebted  to  Australia.  Not 
only  did  it  give  a  lasting  stability  to  principles 

*  The  iron  mines  of  South  Australia  will  probably  yet  be  found  as 
rich  as  any  in  the  world.  Ores  are  found  cropping  out  on  the  surface, 
within  a  short  distance  of  Adelaide,  from  which  62  per  cent,  was 
yielded  upon  analysis.  A  ship  could  be  loaded  at  the  surface  from 
where  the  specimen  was  taken.  Beautiful  octahedral  crystals  of 
protoxide  are  very  common. 


INTRODUCTION.  3 

which  were  found  as  applicable  on  one  side  of  the 
world  as  they  were  on  the  other,  but  perhaps  more 
than  any  other  country  it  has  proved  to  the  world 
that  the  science  of  geology  can  take  the  first  rank 
as  one  which  helps  to  minister  to  the  temporal 
wants  of  man,  and  develop  the  resources  of  a 
nation. 

On  the  other  hand,  however,  geology  has  more 
than  repaid  the  assistance  it  has  received.  Without 
going  very  deeply  into  the  theory  of  colonization, 
one  can  easily  perceive  that,  had  Australia  been 
only  dependent  on  its  pastoral  or  agricultural 
resources,  it  would  have  taken  a  long  time,  a  very 
long  time,  to  become  a  place  of  importance.  Its 
situation  is  too  far  from  Europe  to  have  rendered 
its  progress,  under  these  circumstances,  anything 
but  slow  and  precarious.  But  geology  has  lent  its 
hand,  and  given  quite  a  different  prospect.  Aus- 
tralia promises  now  to  be  one  of  the  most  important 
empires  that  the  sun  will  shine  upon  in  its  twenty- 
four  hours'  course  round  the  world. 

This  is  not  a  trifling  thing  for  one  science  to  say 
of  itself,  and  its  truth  is  Very  easily  made  evident. 
Look,  for  instance,  at  what  Melbourne  was  in  1850 : 
a  poor,  miserable,  straggling  town,  with  not  one 
public  building  that  would  have  done  honour  to 
a  county  town  in  England.  And  what  have  ten 
years  done?  Why,  Melbourne  is  the  wonder  of 
the  southern  hemisphere.  Its  wharves^  its  Govern- 
ment buildings,  its  banks,  its  churches,  and  its 
parks,  are  evidences  of  prosperity  at  which  even 

B    2 


4  INTRODUCTION. 

the  fast-going  Americans  stop  and  stare  with 
amazement.  And  all  this  is  due  to  geology. 
Many  will  say,  however,  '  Don't  say  geology,  say 
gold;  for  gold  would  have  been  eventually  found 
without  the  assistance  of  science  at  all,  and  then 
this  prosperity  would  have  ensued  just  in  the  same 
manner.'  This  is  true ;  but  how  long  might  it  have 
been  delayed?  It  was  geology,  and  geology  only, 
that  led  to  its  discovery  at  the  particular  time  at 
which  it  was  found.  'Sir  Roderick  Murchison,  after 
giving  some  attention  to  the  rocks  of  Australia, 
predicted,  long  before  the  discovery  was  made,  that 
Australia  would  be  found  to  be  auriferous.  The 
Rev.  W.  B.  Clarke,  of  New  South  Wales,  made  the 
same  observations,  and  it  was  by  being  urged  to 
the  matter  by  geologists  that  the  Government  took 
the  matter  in  hand,  and  offered  the  reward  which 
led  to  its  discovery. 

As  an  instance  of  how  long  the  discovery  would 
have  been  delayed  but  for  science,  it  may  be  men- 
tioned that  many  cases  are  on  record  of  gold  having 
been  found  in  Victoria  before  it  was  recognised  as 
such,  and  it  was  invariably  thrown  aside  as  either 
copper  or  iron  pyrites.  The  author  was  once  look- 
ing over  a  collection  of  mineral  specimens  collected 
by  an  old  shepherd,  who  had  a  fancy  for  these 
things.  Among  them  a  piece  of  auriferous  quartz 
was  discovered,  and,  on  asking  the  proprietor  what 
he  considered  it  to  be,  he  said  it  was  some  '  copper 
stone'  he  had  picked  up  in  Victoria  while  shep- 
herding, many  years  before. 


INTRODUCTION.  5 

But  it  is  not  alone  in  Melbourne  that  geology 
has  conferred  immense  benefits.  Look  at  Ballarat, 
at  Sandhurst,  and  at  the  numerous  other  cities,  I 
may  call  them,  where,  ten  years  ago,  nothing  was 
to  be  seen  but  a  few  sheep  feeding.  Again,  in  New 
South  Wales,  see  what  has  been  done  for  that 
colony  by  the  discovery  of  gold  fields.  Not  so 
much,  perhaps,  as  for  Victoria,  but  the  mines  are 
not  so  extensive  there ;  it  has,  however,  coal  to 
make  up  for  it,  and  the  extensive  trade  of  the  Aus- 
tralian Newcastle  is  another  proof  of  the  temporal 
benefits  which  geology  has  in  its  power  to  confer. 
In  South  Australia  there  is  ample  proof  of  the  same. 
About  100  miles  to  the  north  of  Adelaide  there  is 
a  thriving  populous  town,  named  Kooringa.  This 
is  the  locality  of  the  famous  Burra  Burra  mine. 
Nothing  could  be  more  interesting  than  to  remark 
the  European  aspect  which  the  township,  the  ma- 
chinery, and  the  population  of  this  place  present, 
and  then  to  walk  about  two  miles  away,  where  a 
dreary  solitary  landscape,  such  as  can  only  be  seen 
in  the  Australian  Bush,  forms  a  singular  contrast 
with  the  busy  active  place  one  has  just  left.  What 
the  environs  are,  the  town  itself  was  twenty  years 
ago;  and  the  change  is  due  to  geology.  The 
copper  ore  was  cropping  out  of  the  ground,  and 
required  no  science  for  its  discovery,  but  it  may  be 
doubted  whether  the  mine  would  have  been  worth 
much  but  for  working,  based  on  geological  princi- 
ples, and  at  any  rate  much  valuable  ore  would  have 
been  lost  for  want  of  a  mineralogical  knowledge 


6  INTRODUCTION. 

of  its  value.  Darwin  mentions  an  incident  in  his 
travels  Avhich  illustrates  this.  In  some  of  the 
Chilian  copper  mines  the  copper  pyrites  were  al- 
ways thrown  away,  until  it  was  pointed  out  by 
some  English  miners  that  the  ore  was  very  valuable. 
Now,  though  carbonates,  not  sulphurets,  are  the 
predominant  ores  at  Kooringa,  much  would  doubt- 
less have  been  lost  had  not  accurate  scientific 
knowledge  directed  the  operations. 

Again,  fifty  miles  to  the  south  of  the  Burra  Burra 
there  is  another  thriving  little  township,  where, 
much  more  recently,  nothing  of  the  kind  was  to  be 
seen :  this  is  the  Kapunda  mine,  not,  perhaps,  equal 
to  the  one  just  described,  but  an  important  addi- 
tion to  the  mineral  wealth  of  South  Australia.  It 
has  not  been,  as  yet,  certainly  ascertained  that  the 
same  colony  does  not  possess  coal  or  gold ;  but  here 
again  geology  has  shown  its  usefulness  in  direct- 
ing a  systematic  search,  and  preventing  useless 
trials  where  there  was  no  chance  of  success. 

In  Tasmania,  coal,  and  perhaps  gold,  give  evi- 
dence of  the  same  important  position  taken  by  one 
science  in  developing  colonial  resources.  Many 
other  instances  might  here  be  advanced ;  but 
what  has  been  said  is  hardly  consistent  with  the 
brevity  intended  in  this  introductory  chapter,  and, 
at  any  rate,  it  amply  illustrates  what  has  been 
advanced  to  establish  the  utility  of  geology.  All 
hitherto  alleged,  though  not  immediately  con- 
nected with  the  object  of  this  book,  will  serve  two 
important  purposes.  It  will,  in  the  first  place, 


INTRODUCTION.  7 

show  that  the  science  has  now  become  so  impor- 
tant to  mankind,  in  bettering  their  social  position, 
that  all  which  tends  to  increase  our  knowledge 
in  that  particular  branch  of  enquiry  must  be  of 
great  service.  As  such,  it  will  be  an  apology  for 
what  follows,  lest  any  should  think  its  details  not 
worth  recording,  or  not  producing  sufficiently  great 
results  from  the  facts  of  which  it  treats.  Secondly, 
it  will  give  an  idea  of  how  much  has  been  already 
done  towards  a  correct  knowledge  of  Australian 
geology.  But  on  this  head  a  little  more  must  be 
said. 

Of  all  the  Australian  colonies,  the  geology  of 
Victoria  is  best  known,  that  of  New  South  Wales 
perhaps  the  next,  and  that  of  Tasmania  next.  In 
Victoria,  the  geological  survey  spoken  of  in  the 
next  chapter  has  been  undertaken  by  the  Govern- 
ment, and  regular  maps  are  in  course  of  publica- 
tion. In  addition  to  this,  the  Royal  Society  of 
Victoria  has  among  its  members  men  of  the  highest 
scientific  attainments,  who  are  everywhere  record- 
ing observations  of  the  utmost  value  to  the  science, 

o 

and,  under  these  combined  efforts,  it  may  safely  be 
affirmed  that  there  are  no  portions  of  the  colony 
whose  rocks  are  entirely  unknown. 

In  Tasmania,  the  colony  has  been  examined  by 
many  private  individuals  and  by  the  Philosophical 
Society  of  the  colony.  There  is  no  Government 
survey,  as  far  as  I  am  aware;  but  the  continued 
rewards  offered  by  Government  for  the  discovery 
of  gold  have  led  to  an  enterprising  search,  through 


8  INTRODUCTION. 

which  a  good  deal  of  knowledge  has  been  obtained. 
Much  still  remains  to  be  done. 

In  New  South  Wales,  various  scientific  gentlemen 
have  lent  their  aid  to  the  examination  of  the  rocks, 
and  very  little  can  be  desired  as  to  those  in  the 
immediate  neighbourhood  of  Sydney.  In  coal 
districts,  also,  a  very  minute  examination  of  the 
carboniferous  and  old  red  sandstone  rocks  has 
been  made,  and  also  of  the  rocks  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  gold  diggings.  The  colony,  however,  is  so  ex- 
tensive that  it  may  be  many  years  before  complete 
and  reliable  geological  knowledge  can  be  obtained. 

In  South  Australia,  nothing  has  been  done. 
Though  colonised  as  long  as  Port  Phillip,  the 
world,  and  even  the  residents  of  the  colony,  are 
quite  ignorant  of  its  geology.  Certainly,  the  ter- 
ritory is  very  large,  and  a  great  deal  of  it  perfectly 
unknown ;  but  still  the  Government  have  never  yet 
considered  themselves  justified  in  affording  means 
for  a  scientific  examination;  and,  unfortunately, 
private  individuals  with  sufficient  knowledge  have 
never  given  any  attention  to  the  subject.  Any 
searches  for  coal  or  gold  that  have  been  made  have 
been  more  fruitful  in  negative  results  than  in  any 
positive  information. 

In  1856  a  search  for  gold,  under  the  direction  of 
Mr.  B.  H.  Babbage,  resulted  in  nothing  more  than 
a  further  exploration  of  the  colony.  Many  very 
useful  and  important  observations  were,  however, 
made  on  the  nature  of  the  rocks  in  the  districts 
passed  through,  and  no  doubt  that  gentleman's 


INTRODUCTION.  9 

scientific  accuracy  in  recording  facts  has  proved  of 
great  service  in  giving  data  to  carry  out  future 
operations. 

In  1859,  Mr.  Selwyn,  the  Government  geologist 
of  Victoria,  was  invited  by  the  South  Australian 
Government  to  visit  and  report  upon  the  rocks 
of  the  latter  colony,  with  a  view  to  its  gold  or 
coal-producing  properties.  In  a  very  hurried  visit, 
Mr.  Selwyn  was  able  to  furnish  little  more  than  a 
mere  catalogue  of  the  rocks  seen  by  him;  but 
even  that  was  of  service,  and  certainly  it  was  more 
than  could  have  been  anticipated  from  th&  short 
time  allowed  for  the  visit  to  so  large  a  territory. 

And,  though  so  little  has  been  done,  there  is 
no  country  more  interesting  in  its  formations,  or 
more  varied  in  its  mineralogical  productions,  than 
South  Australia :  lofty  mountains,  extensive  plains, 
sandy  deserts,  and  inland  seas,  are  all  included  in 
its  far-stretching  boundaries ;  with  a  climate  like 
that  of  the  south  of  Spain,  it  possesses  the  scenery 
of  the  Highlands  in  some  places,  while  in  others 
deserts  like  those  of  Arabia,  and  vying  with  them 
for  bleakness,  aridity,  and  burning  heat.  There 
are  chains  of  salt  lakes  which  render  unprofitable 
a  larger  area  than  England ;  there  are  marshes  and 
salt  swamps  more  dank,  unwholesome,  and  exten- 
sive, than  any  in  the  United  States  ;  there  are 
rocky  precipices,  and  chasms,  and  waterfalls  to 
rival  almost  the  Alps  ;  there  are  extinct  volcanoes 
of  large  dimensions,  almost  as  numerous  as  those 
of  Auvergne  ;  and,  finally,  there  are  caves  which 


10  INTRODUCTION. 

exceed  in  magnitude  the  Guacharo  caves  of  Hum- 
boldt,  or  in  stalactites  the  Antiparos  of  the  JEgean 
Sea. 

Yet,  as  observed  above,  all  these  things  are  little 
known,  even  as  existing  facts,  much  less  as  illus- 
trating scientific  conclusions.  To  examine  them 
all  and  describe  them  all,  so  as  to  satisfy  the  re- 
quirements of  geology,  would  demand  the  labour, 
not  of  one  alone,  but  the  combined  energies  of 
very  many  learned  and  experienced  men.  This,  of 
course,  will  not  be  obtained  just  now;  in  the  mean- 
time, any  observations  will  be  of  service.  With 
this  view,  these  unconnected  and  casual  observa- 
tions are  offered.  Situated,  as  a  missionary  priest, 
in  the  large  colony  of  Australia,  there  have  been 
opportunities  afforded  for  observation  such  as  few 
could  command;  and  thus  the  author  has  been 
enabled  to  see  a  very  large  portion  of  the  colony, 
and  to  afford  a  partial  observation  to  many  facts 
he  met  with.  What  has  been  done  has  been  re- 
corded in  this  book;  it  will  owe  its  chief  interest, 
not  so  much  from  the  conclusion  arrived  at,  as 
from  the  nature  of  the  phenomena  described. 

There  is,  however,  one  remark  to  be  made  before 
concluding  this  introductory  chapter.  A  common 
prejudice  exists  now-a-days  in  favour  of  Science, 
which  gives  an  unreal  value  to  the  smallest  gains 
in  its  behalf.  I  am  far  from  attaching  an  undue 
weight  to  scientific  theories  as  such,  and  therefore 
still  less  to  any  results  of  my  own.  Though  we 
look  with  the  greatest  pride  on  those  things 


INTRODUCTION.  11 

which  discovery  has  achieved — on  our  telegraphs, 
our  steam-engines,  and  other  numerous  contrivances 
— still  their  usefulness  is  limited  and  confined,  and, 
perhaps,  in  reality,  conferring  a  smaller  amount 
of  benefit  than  is  claimed  for  them.  If,  then,  we 
question  the  amount  of  temporal  usefulness  which 
has  been  awarded  to  geology,  it  has,  perhaps,  as 
much  as  any  other  science,  but  still  of  a  limited 
and  temporal  kind.  While  these  opinions  are  held, 
it  will  be  seen  that  no  unreasonable  claims  are 
made  on  behalf  of  what  I  have  to  relate.  That 
they  are  interesting  as  facts  I  have  little  doubt,  and 
because  they  served,  in  my  case,  as  a  useful  employ- 
ment of  time  which  could  not  be  otherwise  occu- 
pied, they  have  been  collected.  When  out  in  the 
far  Bush,  in  the  prosecution  of  my  duties,  it  has 
been  a  most  delightful  employment,  when  books 
were  unattainable,  to  study  the  great  unpublished 
work  of  Nature,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  reader 
will  think  that  the  time  has  not  been  wasted. 


12 


CHAPTER  H. 
GEOGRAPHY. 

PRELIMINARY  OBSERVATIONS. NATURE  OF  NEW  COUNTRY  KNOWN 

FROM  THE  ROCKS. GEOLOGICAL  QUERIES  TO  BE  ANSWERED 

BY  AUSTRALIA. GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OF   AUSTRALIA 

FORMER  SEPARATION  OF  THE  CONTINENT. SOUTH  AUSTRALIAN 

RANGE. THE  COAST  OF  AUSTRALIA. AUSTRALIAN   COR- 
DILLERA.  SOUTH  AUSTRALIAN  CHAIN. AGE  OF  ROCKS  IN 

AUSTRALIA,  AND  MINERAL  RICHES. GREAT  BARRIER  REEF. 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  AUSTRALIAN  GEOLOGY. 

T^TERY  country  has  its  history,  not  alone  the 
JLJ  history  of  what  its  inhabitants  said  and  did,  nor 
how  its  people  lived,  conspired,  quarrelled,  fought, 
and  died,  but  a  history  which  stretches  farther  back, 
and  is  buried  in  more  remote  antiquity.  If  it  had 
not  been  so,  Australia  might  indeed  be  counted  the 
youngest  as  well  as  the  least  interesting  of  conti- 
nents. She  has  had  no  people  that  could  describe 
her  vicissitudes,  and  there  are  no  monuments  left 
to  chronicle  her  changes ;  but  yet  her  history  is 
written  in  an  imperishable  record.  Of  old,  when 
the  first  explorers  came  upon  the  coast  of  a  newly- 
discovered  territory,  the  rocks,  the  trees,  the  soil, 
and  the  verdure,  only  spoke  to  them  of  one  thing, 
namely,  of  fertility,  or  richness,  or  special  adapta- 
tion to  the  wants  of  man.  But  now  the  very  coast- 
line tells  much  more.  Not  only  is  the  fertility  or  bar- 


GEOLOGY  TOLD  FROM  COAST  SCENERY.     13 

renness  of  the  place  itself  told  by  the  rocks,  but  the 
explorer  is  able  to  guess  how  far  these  appearances 
extend,  and  whether  the  country  is  likely  to  be  fitted 
for  human  requirements  in  the  present  state  of  civi- 
lisation. Thus,  for  instance,  if  he  sees  granite  rocks 
and  slates  on  his  approach,  he  knows  that  there 
must  be  mountainous  ridges  at  no  great  distance  — 
that  there  will  be  plenty  of  fresh  water  and  deep  soil 
near  at  hand;  he  knows  also  that  mineral  riches 
will  be  absent,  and  that  every  facility  will  be  obtain- 
able for  constructing  good  and  substantial  build- 
ings. But  farther  than  this  is  the  mind  of  the 
geologist  carried  back  by  the  view  of  the  granite. 
He  pictures  to  himself  a  time  when  the  hard  stone 
before  him  was  a  melted  fiery  mass ;  when  from  the 
chemical  laboratory  of  Nature  new  minerals  were 
elaborated,  precious  stones  formed,  and  metallife- 
rous veins  insinuated  into  cracks  and  fissures,  to 
serve  man's  purposes. 

So,  again,  if  the  coast  be  composed  of  chalk 
cliffs,  geological  explorers  know  that  the  interior 
will  be  gently  undulating  plains,  but  thinly  tim- 
bered, that  surface  water  will  not  be  plentiful, 
that  the  soil  will  be  best  suited  for  pastoral  pur- 
poses ;  that  mineral  riches  will  be  absent ;  and  for 
its  history,  figure  to  himself  a  white  ring  of  breakers 
beating  upon  a  circle  of  white  sand,  crowded  with 
palm  trees — a  green  saltwater  lake  in  the  middle  of 
the  island,  contrasting  strongly  with  the  dark  blue 
water  outside  —  a  variegated  flower-show  of  coral 
animals — in  fine,  a  marvel  of  fragility  and  strength 


14  ATOLLS   AND    THE   CHALK. 

— of  beauty  and  variety — a  coral  island  or  atoll, 
from  which  the  chalk  beds  are  all  supposed  to  have 
been  derived.  In  short,  every  stone  will  tell  more 
than  the  mere  fact  of  its  presence.  Every  rock 
has  its  chronology,  which  can  be  deciphered  now 
with  ease. 

And  so  we  naturally  ask,  What  has  been  the 
history  of  this  vast  continent  of  Australia,  which 
has  done  so  much  latterly  for  Europe?  What  is 
the  manner  by  which  this  new  home  came  among 
the  other  countries  of  the  world  ?  Does  it  form 
one  link  in  the  chain  of  evidence  found  elsewhere  ? 
Does  it  speak  of  the  same  convulsions,  changes,  vi- 
cissitudes, that  have  attended  the  growth  of  other 
portions  of  the  earth's  surface?  Does  it,  like  them, 
speak  of  the  dawn  of  creation,  where  simple  organ- 
isation and  embryonic  forms  told,  in  simple  though 
unmistakable  language,  that  their  type  and  perfec- 
tion— Man — was  yet  to  come?  All  these  questions 
have  to  be  answered  by  the  geology  of  Australia, 
and  this  forms  the  primeval  history  of  the  conti- 
nent. 

I  am  not  for  a  moment  claiming  for  this  unpre- 
tending book  the  dignity  of  being  able  to  answer 
finally  all,  or  perhaps  any,  of  these  questions ;  but, 
nevertheless,  it  is  meant  as  a  contribution  to  the 
history,  small  in  its  way,  but  showing  the  continent 
to  be  no  exception  to  the  earth's  previous  revela- 
tions. Just  as  memoirs  and  histories  of  particular 
epochs  serve  to  elucidate  the  great  record  of  the 
past,  so  this  little  book  will  be  a  help  towards  the 


AUSTRALIAN   COAST.  15 

great  results  that  are  yet  to  be  obtained.  It  is  in- 
tended, therefore,  in  this  chapter,  to  give  a  short 
sketch  of  the  present  knowledge  of  the  geology  of 
the  Australian  continent,  because  it  will  give  the 
reader  a  notion  of  the  relation  of  different  por- 
tions, and  the  exact  position  of  the  district  to  be 
described. 

I  need  hardly  go  out  of  my  way  to  describe  the 
precise  locality,  dimensions,  and  shape  of  the  Aus- 
tralian continent ;  these  are  now  pretty  generally 
known.  I  would,  however,  call  attention  to  the 
fact,  that  the  outline  of  the  continent  is  generally 
of  an  even  unbroken  outline,  except  in  two  places, 
the  one  north,  and  the  other  south ;  in  fact,  nearly 
opposite  one  another.  The  northern  indentation  is 
the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  including  the  straggling 
coast  line  of  Arnhem's  Land,  with  Clarence  Strait, 
Van  Diemen's  Gulf,  and  Melville  and  Bathurst 
Islands.  On  the  south,  the  indentation  of  the  land 
is  included  in  Spencer's  Gulf,  Gulf  St.  Vincent, 
Yorke's  Peninsula,  Cape  Jervis,  and  Kangaroo 
Island.  If  we  now  follow  the  coast  line  from  Cape 
Jervis  in  a  southerly  and  then  in  an  easterly 
one,  at  the  Kiver  Glenelg  we  find  there  is  110 
indentation  of  any  size,  or,  at  least,  anything  to 
compare  with  those  just  mentioned.  This  continues 
all  around  until  we  reach  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria 
on  the  other  side.  Now,  it  would  appear  that  there 
was  formerly  a  separation  of  the  continent  into  two 
halves  during  one  of  the  recent  tertiary  periods.  This 
separation  was  at  or  about  a  straight  line  between 


16     FOKMER  SEPAEATION  OF  THE  CONTINENT. 

the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  and  the  deep  gulf  just 
spoken  of  on  the  opposite  or  southerly  side.  It  is 
hardly  the  place  now  to  enter  into  the  reasons  which 
incline  me  to  this  opinion,  more  especially  as  it  is 
only  proposed  to  touch  generally  on  the  geology 
of  the  continent.  There  can,  however,  be  briefly 
stated  here  a  few  of  the  facts: — At  Cape  Jervis 
a  mountain  range  commences,  which  runs  nearly 
north  and  south,  and  this  is  bounded  on  its  eastern 
and  western  sides  by  a  recent  tertiary  deposit. 
These  beds  will  occupy  a  very  prominent  position 
in  this  volume,  and  so  they  need  not  be  dwelt  upon 
here  any  more  than  to  say  that  they  thin  out  to 
the  eastward,  very  near  the  boundary  between  the 
two  colonies,  and  are  immediately  succeeded  by 
extinct  volcanoes,  bays,  and  altered  primary  rocks, 
which  do  not  appear  to  have  been  covered  by  any 
tertiary  sea. 

To  the  westward  of  the  same  range  the  beds  have 
been  traced  through  the  greater  portion  of  the  Great 
Australian  Bight,  until  they  are  terminated  by  the 
primary  rocks  of  Western  Australia,  which  do  not 
appear  to  have  ever  been  covered  by  a  tertiary  sea. 
Thus  we  have  the  eastern  and  western  sides  of 
the  continent  occupied  by  primary  rocks,  and  the 
centre  by  tertiary  beds  enclosing  an  abundance  of 
recent  shells.  This  is  pretty  strong  presumptive 
evidence  of  their  previous  separation.  Again,  it 
will  be  mentioned,  in  the  course  of  this  work,  that 
Spencer's  Gulf  bears  most  unmistakable  signs  of 
having  formerly  been  much  larger,  or  rather,  to 


THE   AUSTRALIAN   DESERT.  17 

have  been  better  filled  by  the  ocean  than  it  is  at 
present.  To  the  north  of  Spencer's  Gulf  there  is  an 
uninterrupted  tract  of  waste  marshy  lowlands,  con- 
tinuing as  far  due  north  as  the  explorer  has  hitherto 
ventured.  This  has  been  found,  wherever  examined, 
to  consist  (with  some  small  exceptions)  of  lime- 
stone, with  recent  marine  shells  and  salt  water. 
Many  parts  of  this  desert  are  sandy,  while  other 
parts  are  immense  plains  of  shingles  without  any 
shells,  probably  portions  of  the  ocean  bed,  which 
were  too  deep  for  the  support  of  any  animal  life. 
Geographers  are  not  well  acquainted  with  the  exact 
nature  of  the  rocks  round  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria ; 
but  it  is  not  unlikely  that  they  are  tertiary.  The 
high  land  of  Cape  Yorke,  on  the  eastern  side,  is 
known  to  be  primary,  as  also  the  highest  lands  in 
Arnhem's  Land ;  *  and  this  would  certainly  seem  to 
correspond  with  the  opening  for  the  tertiary  beds 
at  the  southern  gulfs.  It  is  not,  therefore,  hazard- 
ing too  much  to  say,  that  a  sea  has  at  no  very 
distant  period  rolled  between  the  eastern  and 
western  halves  of  the  continent.  It  may  be  men- 
tioned, that  Yorke's  Peninsula,  which  divides  the 
southern  gulfs,  Spencer's  and  St. Vincent's,  is  com- 
posed partly  of  tertiary  rock,  and,  therefore,  shows 
its  origin  to  have  been  coeval  with  the  continent 
itself. 

*  That  is  to  say,  a  ferruginous  sandstone,  of  which  the  whole  north 
coast  is  composed,  and  which  is  very  extensively  distributed  over  the 
continent.  Leichardt  found  in  it  coal  and  plant  impressions.  Under- 
neath it,  occasionally,  was  a  bed  in  which  fossils  very  like  Devonian 
types  were  found. 

C 


18  AUSTRALIAN   CORDILLERA. 

Cape  Jervis  is  the  commencement  of  the  moun- 
tain range  upon  which  Adelaide  is  built ;  and  this 
is  the  easterly  boundary  of  Gulf  St.  Vincent.    Pro- 
ceeding eastward  from  thence,  or  rather  south-east, 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Murray  is  passed ;  thence, 
unto  Portland  Bay,  the  coast  is  low  and  sandy,  or 
containing  fossiliferous  and  trap  rock,  all  of  them, 
however,  belonging  to  the  tertiary  period.     From 
Portland  Bay,  still  keeping  along  towards  the  east, 
right  on  to  Port  Jackson,  there  is  an  alternation 
of  sandy  beach,  tertiary  trap,  and  Silurian  rocks. 
The  tertiary  becomes  more  rare,  once  the  boundary 
between  South  Australia  and  Victoria  is  passed. 
From  Port  Jackson  round  to  Cape  Yorke,  in  the 
Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  the  basis  of  the  coast  is  pri- 
mary.* The  line  of  primary  rocks,  therefore,  drawn 
from  Cape  Yorke  to  Port  Phillip,  is  given  as  con- 
taining one  vast  series  of  rocks  connected  together, 
though,  perhaps,  remotely;  and  this,  it  will  be  seen, 
includes,  almost  in  a  semicircle,  the  whole  eastern 
side  of  Australia.  It  is  thus  marked  in  Murchison's 
Map  of  Silurian  Rocks,  as  distributed  throughout 
the  world.     (See  the  last  edition  of  his  '  Siluria.') 

By  Sir  R.  Murchison  it  is  there  given  as  the  Aus- 
tralian cordillera.  If  it  is,  or  has  been  so,  it  has 
formed  a  remarkable  exception  to  other  cordilleras 

*  The  word  (  basis  '  is  here  used  purposely,  because  there  are  occa- 
sional interruptions ;  but,  from  the  constant  reappearance  of  primary 
series,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  is  the  general  rock  of  the  terri- 
tory. The  term  'primary'  is  not  made  use  of  in  the  sense  in  which 
that  word  was  formerly  accepted ;  those  rocks  are  meant  which  are 
generally  called  palaeozoic,  and  called  generally  primary  or  Silurian, 
to  distinguish  them  from  secondary,  whether  these  be  fossiliferous, 
metamorphic,  or  igenous. 


AUSTRALIAN   CORDILLERA.  19 

throughout  the  world.     Nearly  all  the  Cordilleras 
have  the  most  gradual  slopes  from  east  to  west,  and 
their  drainage,  consequently,  flows  in  an  easterly 
direction ;  but  in  the  case  of  Australia  the  slope  is 
to  the  eastward,  and  the  drainage,  consequently,  in 
an  opposite  course.     It  will  be  seen  that  the  cor- 
dillera  takes  a  westerly  sweep,  near  the  colony  of 
Victoria,  and  terminates  in  the  Australian  Alps, 
some   of  which  are   over    6000   feet   high,*  and 
covered  with  snow  for  a  large  portion  of  the  year. 
It  is  from  the  drainage  of  these  mountains  that  the 
principal  Australian  rivers  are  derived,  but  the  land 
through  which  they  run  is  generally  of  a  poor 
description,  at  any  distance  from  the  banks.     If 
the  continent  had  been  formerly  separated  where 
it  is  here  supposed  it  has  been,  the  alluvial  flats 
which  are  found  along  the  beds  of  these  rivers, 
and  which,  for  so  long  a  time,  acted  as  an  impedi- 
ment  to  their   exploration,  may  have  been  suc- 
cessive deltas  of  rivers,  which  are  even  now  only 
very  little  raised  above  the  level  of  the  sea.   In  the 
case  supposed,  the  Adelaide  chain,  which  may  al- 
most be  considered  a  second  cordillera,  was  a  chain 
of  islands,  and  their  further  upheaval  caused  the 
rivers  to  take  a  southerly  course  to  follow  the  sea, 

*  'The  height  of  these  mountains  is  only  2400  to  4700  feet  above 
the  sea  level,  and  even  Mount  Kosciusko,  the  loftiest  of  the  Austra- 
lian Alps,  is  not  more  than  6900,  yet  its  position  is  so  favourable 
that  the  view  from  its  grassy  tops  sweeps  over  an  area  of  7000  square 
miles.  The  rugged  and  savage  character  of  these  mountains  far 
exceeds  what  might  be  expected  from  their  height.  By  far  the  greater 
part  of  the  chain,  though  wooded  along,  is  crowded  by  naked  needles, 
serrated  peaks,  and  flat  crests  of  granite  or  porphyry,  mingled  with 
patches  of  snow.' — Somerville's  Physical  Geography. 

c  2 


20  SOUTH    AUSTKALIAN   CHAIN. 

which  flowed  between    them  and  the  mountains 
upon  which  Adelaide  now  stands. 

The  dimensions  of  the  chain  (which,  for  con- 
venience, in  this  work  will  be  called  the  South 
Australian  chain)  have  not  yet  been  stated.     It 
commences  properly  at  Cape  Jervis,  and  continues, 
with  varied  height,  until  it  reaches  the  bend  of 
Lake   Torrens,    only  occasionally,  in   its  course, 
throAving  off  spurs  to  the  right  and  left.     This 
range  is  very  detached  and  broken  in  many  places, 
and  perhaps  in  few  parts  higher  than  near  Adelaide, 
where  Mount  Lofty  rises  to  the  height  of  2100  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea;  but  it  is  worthy  of  re- 
mark, that  it   is   entirely  disconnected   with  the 
eastern  cordillera,  or  with  the  mountain  systems  of 
any  of  the  neighbouring  colonies.     In  examining 
portions  of  it,  I  have  been  led  to  think  that  probably 
they  were  of  much  greater  height  at  one  time.    In- 
deed, it  seemed  to  me,  as  far  as  a  cursory  examina- 
tion could  guide  me,  that  there  were  very  distinct 
marks  of  snow,  and  the  action  of  glaciers.     This 
would  declare  the  range  to  have  been  once  of  extra- 
ordinary elevation,  probably  the  axis  of  some  former 
continent.     But  more  minute  examination  must  be 
given  to  the  subject  before  anything  is  stated  as  a 
fact  established.  No  fossils  have  been  found,  except 
at  one  portion  of  the  range,  about  thirty  miles 
south  of  Adelaide.     I  was  informed  that  the  fossil 
was  a  Pentamenus  Oblongus.   This  would  be  charac- 
teristic of  the  lowest  division  of  the  Upper  Silurian 
rocks.     The  person  who  found  it  is  since  deceased, 
so  that  the  observation  cannot  be  traced  farther 


SOUTH    AUSTRALIAN    CHAIN.  21 

or  verified,  unless  new  discoveries  are  made.*   With 
this  exception,  if,  indeed,  it  can  be  considered  such, 
nothing  is  known  of  the  age  of  the  rocks  on  this 
range.     They  are  highly  metamorphic,  and  consist 
principally  of  slates,  quartzites  and  schists.  Gold  has 
been  found  in  several  parts  of  the  range,  although 
never  very  extensively,  but  the  deficiency  is  amply 
made  up  by  the  immense  quantities  of  copper,  iron, 
lead,  and  silver,  besides  marble  and  various  other 
valuable  building  stones.     No  range  of  hill  was 
ever  richer  in  beautiful  varieties  of  minerals,  and 
even   diamonds  and    other   precious   gems    have 
occasionally  been  discovered.      The  description  of 
this  range  has  been  dwelt  upon,  because  it  is  more 
immediately   connected  with  the  subject  of  this 
work.     Only  brief  allusions  will  now  be  made  to 
the  geology  of  other  portions  of  Australia. 

In  describing  the  geology  of  Adelaide,  or  South 
Australia,  there  is  nothing  more  to  say,  at  present, 
than  that  it  is  included  in  the  geology  of  the  range, 
the  tertiary  flats  which  surround  it,  and  the  district 
of  which  the  description  is  especially  undertaken 
in  these  pages.  As  to  Victoria,  its  gold  diggings 
have  led  to  an  amount  of  information  which  it 
would  be  difficult  to  condense,  if  entered  upon  at  all. 

*  Since  the  above  was  written,  my  brother,  T.  A.  Woods,  has 
brought  me  a  fossil  which  he  found  at  Nuriootpa,  north  of  Adelaide. 
I  was  long  unable  even  to  guess  at  its  nature,  it  was  so  different  from 
anything  I  had  previously  seen.  Since  then,  Mr.  Forbes  has  published 
his  researches  amid  the  Andes  (Geological  Society's  Journal),  and 
among  the  engravings  of  fossils  collected  from  the  Silurian  rocks  of 
South  America,  I  immediately  recognised  the  fossil  of  Nuriootpa.  It 
was  Cruziana  C'ucurbita,  thus  showing  the  connection  of  the  true 
Antipodean  beds. 


VICTORIAN   ROCKS. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  Introduction,  it  has  been 
stated  how  the  survey  has  been  undertaken,  and 
up  to  this  time  carried  out.  It  possesses  upper 
and  lower  Silurian  rocks,  agreeing  in  fossils  with 
those  of  Europe,  notwithstanding  their  wide  geo- 
graphical separation;  it  also  has  coal  beds,  which 
Sir  R.  Murchison  seems  to  think  are  Oolitic,  and 
which  agree  with  those  of  Sydney  by  the  frequent, 
occurrence  of  the  remarkable  fern  (  ?)  Glossopteris 
Browniana* 

To  the  geology  of  New  South  Wales  I  have 
also  already  alluded  in  the  Introduction;  that  of 
Northern  Australia  is  little  known. 

Western  Australia  is  only  very  slightly  known 
from  recent  explorations.  It  appears  that  the  old 
red  sandstone  is  very  common,  and  coal  is  out- 
cropping on  every  side;  but  how  far  this  extends, 
or  whether  there  are  any  fossils  to  show  to  what 
precise  period  the  beds  are  to  be  referred,  is  as  yet 
unknown.  In  fact,  our  only  published  source  of 
information  comes  from  a  paper  published  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Victoria  by 
Dr.  Ferd.  Muller,  accompanied  with  maps,  in  which 
paper  the  track  of  a  recent  exploring  party  in  that 
territory  is  described. 

A  description  of  the  Barrier  Reef  on  the  north- 
west side  of  the  Australian  continent  will  con- 

*  A  great  controversy  is  being  now  carried  on  about  the  age  of 
these  beds.  Professor  McCoy  and  Mr.  Selwyn  maintain,  from  the 
similarity  of  the  fossils  to  those  found  by  the  Rev.  S.  Hislop  at  Nagur, 
India,  on  beds  known  to  be  Oolitic,  that  that  must  be  the  age  of  the 
beds.  The  Rev.  W.  B.  Clarke,  F.G.S.  of  Sydney,  having  found  the 
same  fossils  associated  with  true  carboniferous  plants,  maintains  that 
the  beds  are  nearly  the  equivalents  of  the  coal  measures. 


THE    GREAT   BARRIER    REEF.  23 

elude  this  chapter  and  the  general  summary  of 
Australian  geology.  This  is  a  remarkable  feature, 
and  intimately  connected  with  some  theories  in  the 
course  of  this  work,  and  therefore  deserves  special 
notice.  It  is  thus  described  in  Darwin's  work  on 
Coral  Reefs :  —  '  The  Australian  Barrier  Reef  ex- 
tends, with  few  interruptions,  for  nearly  1000  miles. 
Its  average  distance  from  land  is  between  twenty 
and  thirty  miles,  and  in  some  parts  from  fifty  to 
seventy.  The  great  arm  of  the  sea  thus  included 
is  from  ten  to  twenty-five  fathoms  deep,  with  a 
sandy  bottom,  but  towards  the  southern  end,  where 
the  reef  is  farther  from  the  shore,  the  depth  gradu- 
ally increases  to  forty  and,  in  some  parts,  to  more 
than  sixty  fathoms.  Capt.  Flinders  has  described 
the  surface  of  this  reef  as  consisting  of  a  hard 
white  agglomerate  of  different  kinds  of  coral, 
with  rough  projecting  points.  The  outer  edge  is 
the  highest  part.  It  is  traversed  by  narrow  gullies, 
and  at  rare  intervals  is  breached  by  ship  channels. 
The  sea  close  outside  is  profoundly  deep,  but  in 
front  of  the  main  breaches  soundings  can  be  ob- 
tained. Some  low  islets  have  been  found  on  the 
reefs.'  This  reef  has  attention  called  to  it  here, 
because  it  is  closely  connected  with  what  has  to 
be  mentioned  in  subsequent  chapters.  This  also 
is  •  the  only  part  of  the  Australian  coast  where 
there  is  indirect  evidence  of  a  subsidence  of  the 
land,  according,  at  least,  to  the  present  theory  of 
coral  reefs ;  otherwise,  generally,  the  whole  of 
Australia  is  supposed  to  be  slowly  rising  —  a  sup- 


24  DEPRESSION    OF   LAND    OF    INTERIOR. 

position  which  is  more  than  borne  out  by  observa- 
tions to  be  alluded  to. 

In  concluding  this  chapter,  it  only  remains  to 
repeat  the  total  geological  aspect  of  Australia. 
On  either  side,  the  land  is  composed  of  primary  and 
metamorphic  rocks,  while  the  centre  is  an  immense 
level  tract  of  tertiary  formations.  There  is  no  in- 
terruption to  the  latter,  except  an  isolated  moun- 
tain range,  which  forms  the  colony  of  South  Aus- 
tralia. It  has  long  been  supposed  that  the  central 
parts  of  the  continent  are  below  the  level  of  the  sea. 
Though  this  has  not  been  proved,  there  are  great 
probabilities  of  its  truth.  At  all  events,  if  there 
is  any  difference  in  favour  of  the  land,  it  is  exceed- 
ingly slight.  These  facts  should  be  borne  in  mind, 
as  having  an  important  reference  to  the  sequel.  It 
has  been  suggested,  also,  that  the  extraordinary 
aridity  of  the  inland  parts  of  Australia  is  due 
to  the  coast  line  being  so  much  higher  than  the 
interior,  causing  all  winds  charged  with  moisture 
from  the  sea  to  have  their  moisture  condensed  upon 
the  coast,  and  thus  pass  dry  over  the  interior. 
But  the  coast  is  hardly  high  enough  at  any  place  to 
effect  this  complete  condensation,  and  practically 
the  rains  are  not  found  so  very,  much  heavier 
nearer  the  sea.  Probably  the  immense  tract  of 
country  the  clouds  have  to  pass  over  before  reach- 
ing the  interior  is  a  sufficient  cause.  But  the  me- 
teorology of  Australia  is  very  peculiar,  and  can 
hardly  be  generalised,  as  yet,  or  compared  with 
what  occurs  elsewhere,  and  it  is  certainly  out  of 
my  province  to  pursue  it  further  here. 


CHAPTER   III. 

THE    SOILS. 

DEPENDENCE  OF  SCENERY  ON  GEOLOGY. DESCRIPTION  OF  DIS- 
TRICT.   SWAMPS. THEIR  LOCALITIES  AND  PECULIARITIES. 

RIDGES     AND     THEIR      VARIETIES.  PLAINS.  HEATH     AND 

SCRUB. FLORA   OF   THE   DISTRICT.  SAND    AND    ITS    ORIGIN. 

VARIETIES  OF  SOILS. HONEYSUCKLE  COUNTRY. LIME- 
STONE BISCUITS. BROKEN  COUNTRY. MAGNESIAN  FERMENT- 
ATION.   DISTRIBUTION  OF  TREES. CAUSES  FAVOURABLE  TO 

THEIR    GROWTH. LIVING    INHABITANTS    OF    THE     SWAMPS. 

LAGOONS   AT  GUICHEN  BAY. DEPOSIT  OF    BONES    ON    BANKS  OF 

SWAMPS —  IN   CREVICES. CONCLUSION. 

"VIE  ARLY  every  manual  of  geology  commences  by 
•Li  remarking  how  much  the  scenery  of  a  country 
depends  on  its  geological  formation.  The  remark 
might  be  carried  further.  Not  only  does  scenery 
depend  upon  geological  formations,  but  also  the 
appearance  of  the  cities  and  towns,  and  even  the 
character  of  the  architecture.  Who,  for  instance, 
does  not  know  how  much  the  beauty  of  the  city 
of  Bath  depends  on  the  excellence  of  the  stone 
with  which  it  is  constructed  —  how  a  traveller  in 
Auvergne  is  struck  with  the  gloomy  appearance  of 
the  town,  built  of  scoria  and  lava  ?  Our  northern 
cities,  again,  which  are  built  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  granite  quarries,  have  a  massive  style  of  ar- 
chitecture, and  imperishable  buildings.  Look  at 


26  POETLAND   AND    GUICHEN   BAYS. 

the  trim  appearance  of  the  cities  of  the  midland 
counties,  which  have  sandstone  at  command,  or 
the  churches  of  chalk  flints  in  the  south,  or  the 
neat  houses  of  chalk  in  the  same  place.  Other 
instances  innumerable  might  be  cited,  but  one 
more  will  be  just  mentioned,  because  it  is  a  very 
palpable  one,  and  because  it  has  reference  to  the 
country  now  about  to  be  described. 

There  are  two  ports  on  the  south  coast  of  Aus- 
tralia, not  very  far  from  each  other;  one  is  Port- 
land Bay,  and  the  other  Guichen  Bay.  The  town 
of  the  first,  called  Portland,  is  built  upon  a  stream 
of  basalt,  which  has  flowed  from  a  submarine 
crater  at  a  time  when  the  present  site  of  Portland 
was  beneath  the  waves.  Nothing  could  be  more 
cold  and  sombre  than  the  appearance  of  the  town, 
and  because  the  houses,  churches,  and  all  the  build- 
ings are  constructed  with  dark  basalt.  Robe  Town, 
on  the  contrary,  though  situated  in  a  most  dreary 
bed  of  sand-hills,  has  a  cheerful  and  picturesque 
appearance.  It  lies  on  a  limestone  tertiary  for- 
mation, which  supplies  a  pure  white  and  durable 
stone  for  its  buildings.  It  will  be  easily  under- 
stood, from  these  instances,  how  much  scenery  will 
depend  upon  geology,  if  even  cities  do  so.  And 
more  than  this,  the  same  formation  generally  gives 
rise  to  the  same  scenic  effects,  so  that  unity  of 
rocky  structure  will  cause  unity  of  landscape. 

In  no  place  is  this  more  evident  than  that  part 
of  South  Australia  called  the  South-eastern  Dis- 
trict. As  this  is  the  territory  where  most  of  the 


THE    SOUTH-EASTERN   DISTRICT.  27 

observations  contained  in  this  book  were  made, 
some  lengthened  description  will  be  necessary.  It 
is  a  territory  included  within  the  boundary  between 
Victoria  and  South  Australia  on  the  one  side,  and  the 
windings  of  the  river  Murray  on  the  other.  A  re- 
ference to  the  map,  at  the  commencement  of  the 
work,  will  show  its  precise  position.  The  extent  of 
this  country  is  about  290  miles  from  north  to  south, 
with  an  average  breadth  of  70  miles  from  east  to 
west.  The  whole  district  is  remarkably  level  and 
horizontal;  indeed,  it  may  be  called  one  extensive 
plain,  the  only  exception  being  some  ridges,  which 
never  rise  more  than  200  feet  above  it,  besides  ex- 
tinct craters  and  half  a  dozen  hills  raised  by  trap 
dykes.  The  latter  are  in  the  southern  part,  and  will 
be  described  hereafter.  In  the  north,  there  are  two 
or  three  ranges  of  porphyry,  consisting  of  chains 
of  small  eminences,  which  run  nearly  east  and  west 
for  about  100  miles,  terminating  in  a  volcanic  dis- 
trict on  the  rivers  Wimmera  and  Glenelg,  twenty 
miles  over  the  colonial  boundary.  Though  this  coun- 
try is,  as  stated,  a  dead  level,  very  little  elevated 
above  the  sea,  and,  as  far  as  scenery  is  concerned, 
there  is  the  most  dreary  sameness,  yet  there  is  con- 
siderable unity  in  the  nature  of  the  plains.  Thus, 
in  the  south,  immediately  above  the  craters  just 
alluded  to,  nothing  but  immense  swamps  are  to  be 
seen.  These  occupy  a  fearful  quantity  of  what 
might  be  otherwise  available  land.  One  alone,  the 
Dismal  Swamp,  is  of  vast  magnitude,  stretching 
about  thirty  miles  from  east  to  west,  and  ten  from 


28  DISMAL   SWAMP. 

north  to  south.  Great  as  it  is,  it  cannot  be  seen 
in  one  view,  because  it  is  continually  run  through 
with  little  island  strips,  or  spurs  of  lands,  which 
are  as  thickly  covered  with  scrub  and  lofty  trees 
as  they  can  possibly  be,  so  that  the  Dismal  Swamp 
is  rather  a  chain  of  marshes  than  one  vast  morass. 
Country  of  this  description  is  not,  however,  con- 
fined to  the  southern  portion  of  the  district;  it  is 
more  or  less  distributed  over  the  whole.  Swamps 
are  scattered  here  and  there,  from  north  to  south, 
as  far  as  the  plains  last,  that  is,  the  grassy  plains ; 
and  not  until  the  '  Scrub '  commences  are  they 
completely  lost  sight  of.  Some  reason,  however, 
may  be  assigned  for  their  greater  prevalence  south- 
ward. The  land  rises  very  gradually  from  the 
sea,  and,  therefore,  the  drainage  is  very  imperfect. 
There  are  no  rivers  in  that  part  of  the  country, 
and  the  water  can  only  be  conveyed  underground, 
after  slow  infiltration  through  the  soft  rock.  The 
surface  water  will  therefore  collect  in  all  the  hol- 
lows, and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Dismal 
Swamp  is  a  shallow  depression  in  a  very  large  sur- 
face of  land.  It  is  bounded  on  every  side  by  very 
low  elevations,  so  low,  indeed,  as  only  to  be  noticed 
by  their  comparative  dryness  at  all  seasons  of  the 
year.* 

Whenever  small  swamps  are  isolated,  they  pos- 
sess in  this  district  peculiarities  which  deserve  at- 
tention. They  usually  have  a  considerable  mound 

*  In  very  wet  seasons  there  is  a  current  in  the  Dismal  Swamp 
for  about  two  months.     It  flows  into  the  river  Glenelg,  Victoria. 


SWAMPS.  29 

or  ridge  of  good  black  soil  on  the  eastern  side. 
This  is  easily  accounted  for.  The  swamps  are 
generally  densely  overgrown  with  rushes,  reeds, 
and  a  thick  wiry  grass.  When  the  moisture  by 
which  they  are  surrounded  is  dried  up  (which 
occurs  nearly  every  summer)  the  vegetation  be- 
comes dry  and  brittle,  so  as  to  be  easily  broken  by 
even  the  wind.  When  in  winter  the  rain  fills  these 
reservoirs  again,  westerly  winds  mostly  prevail, 
and  the  broken  mass  gets  drifted  over  to  the 
eastern  side,  where  it  accumulates  in  very  con- 
siderable heaps.  Thus  the  ridges  become  formed : 
some  of  them  are  of  great  height,  that  is,  consider- 
ing their  origin.  They  are,  in  many  instances, 
surmounted  with  large  gum  trees,  which  grow  ex- 
cellently on  this  moist  and  fertile  soil.  The  great 
size  of  these  trees  points  to  the  antiquity  of  the 
swamps  in  the  position  in  which  they  now  are, 
because  the  ridges  in  which  the  trees  are  growing 
must  have  taken  ages  before  they  could  give  any 
depth  of  soil.* 

Before  going  further  into  details,  some  apology 
may  be  due  for  what  follows,  as  not  being  in 
keeping  with  the  title  of  the  work.  Some  facts  are 
to  be  mentioned  which  are  more  botanical  than  geo- 
logical. It  is  hoped,  however,  that  their  connection 
with  the  subject  in  hand  will  excuse  their  intro- 
duction, more  especially  as  geology  may  be  said  to 
have  a  domain  in  all  the  sister  sciences,  and  to  be 

*  These  ridges  are  frequently  about  100  yards  long,  50  feet  high,  and 
of  considerable  width,  giving  a  very  undulating  character  to  the  plains. 


30  BOTANICAL   REMARKS. 

more  or  less  interested  in  whatever  may  elucidate 
or  aid  them.  The  plan  proposed  in  this  book 
is  to  commence  with  the  surface,  and  proceed 
through  the  different  strata  as  they  are  found, 
until  the  lowest  known  here  is  reached.  This 
chapter,  then,  though,  perhaps,  the  least  interest- 
ing, is  a  necessary  part  of  what  follows,  and  must 
be  gone  through.  It  could  hardly  be  said  to 
be  a  complete  geological  enumeration  which  did 
not  show  what  were  the  peculiarities  of  the  sur- 
face over  certain  descriptions  of  strata.  Besides 
marshy  ground,  three  other  kinds  of  soil  are 
found.  They  are  as  follow : — Ridges  or  low  ranges 
of  hills,  with  limestone  cropping  out;  ridges  of 
sand ;  and  sandy  plains  devoid  of  grass.  The  ridges 
with  limestone  cropping  out  are  the  only  eleva- 
tions of  any  importance  in  the  district,  and  these, 
though  never  of  any  great  elevation,  always  border 
marshy  country.  They  are  always  well  grassed, 
and  not  thickly  timbered.  The  most  common  tree 
on  them  is  the  Casuarina  ^Equcefolia  (the  Shea 
Oak  of  colonists),  but  others  are  common;  the  Bur- 
saria  Spinosa  (a  tree  very  like  our  privet) ;  the 
Banksia  Integrcefolia,  or  honeysuckle;  the  Euca- 
lyptus Resinifera,  or  red  gum,  producing  a  resin 
equal  in  medicinal  properties  to  the  kino  gum,  and 
the  Acacia  Mollissima,  or  wattle,  which  exudes  a 
clear  and  useful  gum,  and  is  a  really  beautiful  tree. 
The  soil  is  of  a  light  red  colour,  and  is  evidently 
directly  derived  from  the  decomposition  of  the  out- 
cropping limestone.  The  flora  of  these  ridges  is 


BOTANICAL    KEMARKS.  31 

poor,  seldom  including  more  than  grasses,  and  the 
Pteris  Esculenta,  or  common  Australian  fern.  No- 
thing, however,  could  be  more  picturesque  than  the 
appearance  of  these  limestone  ridges  in  spring,  as 
then  their  lively  green  colour  contrasts  strongly 
with  the  ordinary  dead  colour  of  Australian  vege- 
tation. In  summer  they  are  dreary  enough.  The 
grass  is  then  dry  and  withered,  leaving  the  red  soil 
and  dry  rock  disagreeably  bare  and  parched.  The 
length  of  some  of  these  ridges  is  very  remarkable. 
There  is  one  which  takes  its  origin  at  Penola, 
and  continues  in  a  northerly  direction  for  more 
than  fifty  miles,  being  higher  towards  its  northern 
extremity.  All  the  way,  it  slopes  down  to  the 
westward  into  an  open  marshy  country,  very  spa- 
ringly timbered.  There  are  many  other  ridges 
as  long  as  this  and  parallel  to  it,  divided  from  each, 
other  by  plains,  and  this  is  one  of  the  peculiar 
features  of  the  district.  They  will  be  further 
noticed  by  and  by,  as  also  their  caves  and  other 
curiosities. 

The  next  kind  of  country  to  be  described  is 
that  containing  sandy  ridges.  These  are  gene- 
rally thickly-timbered!  elevations,  frequently  form- 
ing part  of  those  just  described.  They  are  nearly 
destitute  of  grass,  but  are  very  shrubby,  rarely 
supporting  any  other  tree  but  a  stunted  and  irre- 
gular growth  of  Eucalyptus  Fabrorum,  or  Stringy 
Bark,  whose  bark  is  invaluable  for  roofing,  and  may 
yet  prove  a  superior  material  for  ropes  or  coarse 
paper,  and  whose  wood  is  the  most  useful  that 


32  MALLEE    SCRUB. 

the  colonist  has  yet  found  for  houses,  palings 
shingles,  &c. 

The  kind  of  sand  which  covers  these  hills  varies 
very  much.  In  some  places  it  is  fine,  mingled  with 
loam  and  powdered  limestone;  in  others,  it  is  a 
mixture  of  rounded  pink  felspar  and  clear  quartz. 
To  describe  where  these  sandy  ridges  are  most 
common  would  be  to  indicate  the  whole  district. 
They  seem  to  occur  everywhere,  and  run  in  all 
directions,  always  excepting  those  plains  which 
are  between  the  limestone  ridges.  Where  they 
are  of  any  size  and  continuous,  their  course  is 
generally  north  and  south,  but  they  sometimes 
skirt  swamps,  intersect  the  heaths,  and  run  round 
the  edges  of  all  the  well-grassed  country. 

But  the  country  which  takes  up  the  largest  por- 
tion of  the  district,  with  the  exception  of  the  Mallee 
Scrub,  to  which  it  is  nearly  allied,  is  what  is  termed 
the  heath.  This  is  easily  described :  immense  level 
sandy  tracts,  heavy  and  dusty  in  summer,  and 
boggy  in  winter,  supporting  no  grass,  nor  any  trees 
but  those  of  a  stunted  and  worthless  character,  run 
through,  here  and  there,  with  belts  of  short  and 
crooked  '  stringy  bark/  and  in  all  other  places 
covered  with  tangled  brushwood,  about  two  feet 
high  —  these  are  the  features  of  the  heath.  Unfor- 
tunately, as  already  stated,  it  occupies  by  far  the 
larger  portion  of  the  district.  In  fact,  if  a  map 
were  coloured  so  as  to  represent  only  the  available 
land,  it  would  be  seen  that  but  a  very  small  portion 
could  be  called  such  in  this  part  of  South  Australia. 


HONEYSUCKLE    COUNTRY.  33 

What  is  there  would  be  seen  to  run  in  narrow 
strips,  nearly  north  and  south,  and  never  more 
than  ten  miles  wide.  Thus,  there  is  a  strip  about 
eight  miles  from  the  boundary,  between  the  two 
colonies,  which  commences  at  the  south  extremity 
of  the  coast,  and  runs  on  to  the  Tatiara  country, 
where  it  is  crossed  by  a  little  patch  running  east 
and  west.  During  nearly  its  whole  course  it  is 
bounded  on  the  east  side  by  a  limestone  ridge,  and 
on  the  west  by  a  sandy  one.  Next  to  this  strip, 
about  sixteen  miles  farther  west  (the  intervening 
country  being  filled  with  heath  and  sand  hills),  is 
another  line  of  grassed  country,  not  so  good  as  the 
former,  in  consequence  of  its  boggy  nature,  but  of 
much  greater  extent,  being  about  fourteen  miles 
wide,  if  a  ridge  which  runs  through  it  be  included. 
It  runs  far  to  the  north,  but  the  soil  is  very  poor 
and  light  during  most  of  its  course.  This  is  the 
honeysuckle  country,  of  which  more  hereafter. 
Finally,  this  territory  is  bounded  on  the  north  and 
north-west  by  the  Mallee  Scrub,  of  which  a  more 
detailed  description  must  be  given. 

This  portion  of  the  south-eastern  district  of 
South  Australia,  about  9000  square  miles  in  ex- 
tent, is  one  uninterrupted  waving  prairie  of  Euca- 
lyptus dumosa  (by  the  natives  termed  Mallee), 
something  like  a  bushy  willow  in  appearance.  It 
commences  about  one  hundred  miles  from  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  coast,  and  goes  on  (as 
far  as  yet  known),  without  any  interruption  of  a 
different  description  of  country,  right  on  to  the 

D 


34  MALLEE    SCRUB. 

north  and  north-west  boundary  formed  by  the  river 
Murray  to  this  district.  It  continues  on  the  other 
side  of  the  river,  but  with  this  we  have  nothing  to 
do  just  now.  One  road  passes  across  it  for  about 
one  hundred  miles  from  the  Tatiara  country  to 
Wellington  Ferry,  or  the  crossing-place  of  the 
Murray.  There  is  also  a  small  patch  of  grassy 
country  on  some  porphyry  ranges  about  twenty- 
six  miles  within  its  edge,  but,  beyond  this,  it  is  con- 
sidered impenetrable.  Occasionally,  however,  an 
adventurous  settler  has  taken  a  few  days'  supply 
of  water  and  provisions,  and  has  gone  fifty  or  sixty 
miles  beyond  the  nearest  settlement,  but  such 
journeys  have  only  confirmed  the  idea,  that  the 
scrub  is  totally  unfit  for  any  purposes.  There  are 
only  few  places,  however,  where  it  can  be  even  ex- 
plored. The  trees  grow  close  together  like  reeds, 
and  certainly  not  thicker,  without  a  branch,  until 
about  fourteen  feet  from  the  ground,  and  so  dense 
are  they,  that  ten  and  twelve  stems  may  be  counted 
springing  from  one  root,  and  occupy  little  more 
than  a  square  foot  of  ground.  Where  a  road  has 
been  cut  through  it,  it  appears  as  though  there  were 
a  high  wall  on  each  side ;  indeed,  the  effect  is  not 
unlike  that  produced  by  a  road  through  a  trench. 

It  is  strange,  that  while  writers  on  Australia 
give  so  much  praise  to  the  fertility  of  the  country, 
they  forget  to  mention,  that  by  far  the  larger  por- 
tion of  it  is  taken  up  by  deserts  such  as  this.  Not 
only  in  this  district,  but  in  the  whole  of  this  South 
Australia,  there  is  not  a  single  portion  of  available 


MALLEE   SCEUB.  35 

land  which  is  not  bounded  either  on  the  north,  or 
east,  or  west,  by  a  similar  desert,  if  the  term  can 
be  applied  to  tracts  of  land  producing  nothing  but 
useless  stunted  shrubs.  The  appearance  of  such 
places  is  very  gloomy.  From  any  eminence  you 
see  nothing  but  a  dark  brown  mass  of  bushes,  as  far 
as  the  eye  can  reach.  The  soil  is  generally  a  yellow 
sand,  and,  when  a  patch  of  it  is  observed,  it  gives  an 
air  of  sterility  in  exchange  for  monotony.  But  the 
outline  is  generally  unbroken,  seeming  like  a  heav- 
ing ocean  of  dark  waves,  out  of  which,  here  and 
there,  a  tree  starts  up  above  the  brushwood,  making 
a  mournful  and  lonely  landmark.  On  a  dull  day 
the  view  is  most  sad,  and  even  sunlight  gives  no 
pleasure  to  the  view,  for  seldom  bird  or  living  thing 
ever  lends  a  variety  to  the  colour,  while  light  only 
extends  the  prospect,  and  makes  it  more  hopeless. 

If  Tartary  is  characterised  by  its  steppes,  Ame  • 
rica  by  its  lianas,  savannahs,  and  prairies,  and 
Africa  by  its  deserts,  surely  Australia  has  one 
feature  peculiar  to  itself,  and  that  is  its  '  scrubs.' 
Not  only  do  they  recur  constantly  with  the  same 
soil  and  the  same  peculiarities,  but  even  in  widely- 
distant  districts  their  flora  is  very  similar.  There 
is  something  in  them  peculiarly  Australian,  which 
entitles  them  to  more  attention  than  they  have 
received.  Probably  an  attentive  study  of  them 
will  lead  hereafter  to  more  than  one  important 
result ;  but  at  least  if  it  be  asked  how  Australia 
differs  from  every  other  known  continent,  it  may 
be  replied,  in  its  scrubs,  and  their  fauna  and  flora. 

D   2 


36  HEATHS. 

There  is  a  great  difference,  however,  between 
what  has  been  described  as  heath  and  the  scrub ; 
the  former  is  generally  run  through  with  belts  of 
stringy  bark,  which,  in  consequence  of  the  great 
prevalence  of  bush  fires  in  brushy  country,  have 
their  trunks  blackened  and  charred.  Then  there  is 
always  more  tea  tree,  Melaleuca  paludosa,  a  bushy 
shrub,  which  grows  rather  high;  and,  finally, 
the  grass  tree,  Xanthorrhoea  australis,  gives  a  pe- 
culiar semi-tropical  air  to  the  whole.  This  latter 
tree,  though  frequently  described  in  works  on 
Australia,  deserves  some  short  notice  now.  It  is 
generally  a  short  round  stem,  about  eighteen  inches 
high  and  six  in  diameter,  surmounted  by  a  bundle 
of  long,  stiff,  rushy  grass,  which  droops  gracefully 
around,  and  out  of  the  centre  grows  something 
like  bulrush,  only  longer,  stronger,  and  much 
thicker  in  the  stem.  When  these  flower,  as  they 
do  in  winter,  the  top  of  the  bulrush  becomes 
covered  with  white  stars,  and  a  whole  heath  of 
them  in  flower  has  a  very  pretty  appearance. 

The  smaller  scrub,  on  the  contrary,  is  a  succession 
of  clumps  of  the  Eucalyptus  dumosa,  often  bound 
together  by  a  creeping  plant,  which  makes  them  as 
impenetrable  as  a  wall,  and  appearing  like  statues 
at  a  short  distance.  But  there  is  no  other  plant  to 
interrupt  the  growth  where  the  mallee  is  thick, 
or,  at  least,  of  any  size.  In  both  heath  and  scrub, 
however,  a  shrub  is  common,  which  appears  to 
form  part  of  both:  this  is  the  Banksia  ornata,  a 
very  stout  shrub,  with  purplish  flowers. 


HEATHS.  37 

A  view  can  seldom  be  obtained  in  the  scrub 
except  from  an  eminence,  whereas  in  the  heath  the 
whole  prospect  lies  before  you  in  the  very  com- 
mencement. Both,  however,  have  a  very  varied  flora, 
though  the  balance  is  in  this  respect  in  favour  of 
the  heath.  In  spring,  nothing  can  exceed  the  varied 
beauty  which  meets  the  eye  on  every  side  on  both 
places.  There  is,  first,  the  Epacris  impressa,  with 
its  spike  of  campanulate  white  or  carmine  flowers ; 
there  is  the  Corrcea  cardinalis,  something  like  a 
fuschia,  tipped  with  yellow  on  the  points  of  the 
corolla ;  there  is  the  Tetratheca  ciliata,  a  charming 
pink  bell,  and  the  Dillwynia  floribunda,  a  tall  spike> 
of  orange  papilionaceous  flowers,  and  many  others, 
all  most  abundant,  and  charmingly  beautiful.  Of 
course  little  is  known  of  the"  flowers  of  the  Mallee 
Scrub,  but  it  differs  from  the.  heath  in  many  re- 
spects. Many  are  found  in  the  latter  which  are 
not  seen  in  the  former,  and  vice  versd,  neither  are 
the  three  varieties  of  Mallee  found  anywhere  ex- 
cept in  the  scrub  itself,  or  on  its  boundaries.  Dr. 
Miiller,  the  Government  botanist,  has  done  much 
towards  obtaining  a  knowledge  of  the  scrub  flora, 
but  of  course  it  will  not  be  complete  until  the 
whole  has  been  explored. 

We  have  now  seen  that  one  peculiarity  is  com- 
mon to  a  great  portion  of  the  district  described, 
both  heath  and  scrub,  and  that  is  the  sandy  soil. 
It  has  already  been  observed,  that  the  same  kind  of 
sand  is  not  found  in  every  place.  In  the  Mallee  it 
is  yellow,  and  seems  to  be  mixed  with  a  great  deal 


38  SANDY    SOILS. 

of  clay.  In  some  parts  of  the  heath  it  is  white 
mixed  with  black  loam  and  pipe-clay,  while  the 
hills  generally  have  the  coarse-grained  variety, 
with  pink  felspar.  This  last  would  appear  to  arise 
from  the  disintegration  of  the  granitic  or  porphy- 
ritic  rock ;  but,  with  the  exception  of  a  range  of 
such  rock  in  the  Mallee  Scrub,  which  runs  from 
east  to  west,  there  is  nothing  in  the  neighbourhood 
to  bear  out  such  a  supposition.  It  seems  difficult 
to  imagine  that  such  immense  quantities  of  rock 
could  have  disappeared  without  leaving  any  traces 
on  the  hills  where  the  sand  now  is,  or  indeed  any 
traces  at  all,  except  to  the  north,  and  a  spot  a  little 
to  the  east  of  the  Mosquito  Plains.  As,  however, 
the  pink  sand  is  more  common  near  the  boundary, 
and  especially  so  within  ten  or  twelve  miles  of 
places  where  red  granite  now  is,  we  must  suppose 
it  to  proceed  from  decomposed  granite,  whose  loose 
crystals  have  been  scattered  to  great  distances  either 
by  winds  or  rains.  The  grains  are  rounded  and 
very  large ;  probably  some  of  the  hillocks  on  which 
they  are  found  may  have  been  granite  hills.  To 
the  sands  on  the  heaths  and  sand  ridges,  attention 
must  next  be  drawn.  It  varies  in  different  places 
as  to  colour  and  consistency.  That  of  the  Mallee 
Scrub  is  yellowish  and  firm,  while  that  of  the  heath 
is  quite  white  and  argillaceous,  and  like  soft  pipe- 
clay in  winter.  It  is  almost  unnecessary  to  re- 
peat that  this  sandy  soil  occupies  more  than  three- 
fourths  of  the  south-eastern  district.  It  remains  to 
suggest  a  few  ideas  as  to  its  origin. 


SANDY   SOILS.  39 

From  what  will  be  said  in  the  next  chapter,  it 
will  be  seen  that,  with  one  or  two  trifling  excep- 
tions, all  the  rocks  of  the  district  belong  to  one 
formation  :  this  is  a  tertiary  limestone,  containing, 
amid  portions  of  coral,  &c.,  considerable  quantities 
of  silica.  The  decomposition  of  these  strata  would 
give  rise  to  a  calcareous  sand,  such  as  that  observed 
in  the  district.  But  not  alone  from  this  does  it 
derive  its  origin.  It  will  be  shown,  by  and  by,  that, 
prior  to  the  upheaval  of  the  rocks  mentioned,  they 
were  pretty  generally  covered  with  a  deposit  called 
here  crag.  This  was  thrown  down  from  numerous 
ocean  currents,  which,  with  a  large  amount  of  sea- 
sand,  carried  and  stratified  about  small  fragments 
of  shells  and  other  marine  detritus.  This  latter 
deposit  has  nearly  entirely  disappeared,  and  can 
only  now  be  traced  in  a  few  places,  where  its  great 
hardness  saved  it  from  destruction.  That  its  re- 
moval was  partly  effected  by  aqueous  agency,  while 
the  land  was  being  slowly  upheaved,  there  can  be 
little  doubt,  but  what  little  has  remained  after  the 
process  now  helps  to  form  the  soil  of  the  immense 
sand  districts  under  consideration.  A  good  instance 
can  be  seen  near  the  coast  of  the  extent  to  which 
the  underlying  rock  composes  the  soil  above. 
There  the  whole  line  has  recently  been  raised  from 
the  sea ;  and,  though  the  earth  is  of  a  dark  colour, 
and  contains  a  good  deal  of  vegetable  matter,  entire 
shells  are  almost  as  common  in  it  as  pebbles  in 
gravel.  About  two  feet  below  the  surface  a  hard 
limpstoneis  reached  full  of  shells  of  existing  species. 


40  THE    SOILS. 

If  this  theory  be  correct  for  the  origin  of  sand, 
it  remains  to  be  asked,  ho\v,  in  some  places,  the  soil 
is  black  (in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  swamps)  and 
in  others  red  (on  the  limestone  ridges),  both  good 
land,  well  grassed,  and  lightly  timbered,  while  in 
other  places  nothing  but  sand  is  seen,  though  all 
are  resting  on  the  same  kind  of  strata?  In  an- 
swering this,  it  must  first  be  remembered  that  some 
allowance  must  be  made  for  varieties  of  composi- 
tion in  the  rocks  themselves ;  for,  though  they  may 
belong  to  the  same  age,  and  even  be  parts  of  the 
same  strata,  yet  the  local  circumstances  may  vary. 
Thus,  the  rocks  about  Mount  Gambier  often  con- 
tain iron  pyrites  and  rock-salt  minerals  rarely  met 
with  in  other  parts  of  the  formation.  Again,  in 
some  places,  the  rock  is  of  the  purest  white,  while 
in  others  it  is  of  a  dark-red  colour,  with  black 
nodules.  To  some  such  circumstance  must  be  at- 
tributed the  fact,  that  on  limestone  ridges  the  soil 
is  a  chocolate  colour  with  the  rock  cropping  out, 
while  in  the  same  ridge  nothing  but  sand  is  dis- 
cernible. But  the  black  soil  of  the  grassy  plains 
requires  a  different  explanation.  In  the  formation 
of  these,  two  things  have  had  a  material  influence ; 
namely,  the  lower  level  of  the  land,  and  the  perma- 
nence of  a  good  deal  of  surface  water.  It  has  been 
already  stated  that  the  good  country  (grass-sup- 
porting) runs  generally  in  parallel  bands  about 
north  and  south,  and  it  always  has  more  elevated 
land  upon  its  eastern  and  western  sides.  Now  this 
causes  a  great  amount  of  water  to  collect  upon 
them,  and,  as  there  are  none  which  are  not  covered 


THE    SOILS.  41 

with  swamps  and  marshes,  vegetable  matter  of 
every  kind  gets  swept  down  by  the  drainage.  The 
decomposition  of  this,  besides  the  vegetation  of  the 
marshes,  gives  rise  to  the  black  soil.  The  reason 
why  the  same  does  not  take  place  at  the  heath  may 
be  because  the  heath  is  generally  on  a  higher  level, 
and  therefore  so  drained  as  to  prevent  the  accumu- 
lation of  vegetable  manure.  Indeed,  this  would 
appear  to  be  the  case,  though  it  has  not  been  ascer- 
tained by  actual  measurement.  There  is  an  in- 
stance of  the  kind  on  the  river  Glenelg,  in  Victoria. 
This  river  has  cut  a  very  steep  channel  for  itself. 
The  plains  through  which  it  runs  are  sandy  heath 
on  the  higher  parts ;  but  on  a  large  flat,  which  im- 
mediately borders  the  stream,  the  ground  is  well 
grassed,  the  soil  black,  and  extremely  heavy  in 
winter. 

It  has  just  been  said,  that  in  all  the  grassy  plains 
there  are  numerous  swamps,  and  some  of  great  ex- 
tent. The  lower  level  is  shown  by  this,  but  this 
is  not  the  only  evidence.  In  winter,  many  square 
miles  are  in  some  parts  completely  covered  with 
water  a  foot  or  so  in  depth.  This  is  not  seen  in 
the  heath.  It  is  true  that  certain  depressions,  like 
the  furrows  of  a  ploughed  field,  cause  the  water  to 
collect  in  small  pools  in  winter,  but  there  is  never 
much  of  it  in  one  place,  and,  even  in  these,  the  sand 
is  darker  and  the  ground  more  consistent  than  what 
is  observed  in  the  heath  generally ;  a  swamp  will 
also  be  occasionally  seen  in  the  heath,  but  the  soil 
close  to  it  is  bla,ck  and  firm. 

The  black  soil  of  the  plains  is,  from  time  to  time. 


42  THE    SOILS. 

interrupted  by  blocks  of  very  white  limestone. 
They  are  generally  flat,  rounded,  of  little  thickness, 
and  do  not  appear  to  be  attached  to  the  rock  below. 
Such  boulders  (if  the  term  may  be  applied  to  them 
for  convenience)  are  most  common  on  the  grassy 
plains,  and  they  appear  to  result  from  lime  which 
has  been  washed  out  of  the  soil,  and  subsequently 
hardened  on  the  surface  by  the  continued  evapora- 
tion of  the  water,  in  the  hollows  in  which  they  are 
placed.  Such  stones  are,  however,  quite  distinct 
from  the  '  biscuits '  known  in  the  district,  though 
their  origin  is  owing  to  a  similar  process.  These 
latter  are  found  in  what  is  called  the  '  honeysuckle 
country;'  and,  as  that  and  the  biscuits  are  very 
peculiar  characteristics  of  the  districts,  they  must 
be  noticed  separately. 

The  honeysuckle  country,  already  alluded  to,  is, 
in  fact,  just  what  its  name  implies — extensive  flats 
or  plains  growing  little  else  but  coarse  rank  grass 
and  the  Banksia  integrifolia.  I  must  be  excused 
for  turning  aside  for  one  moment  to  describe  the  tree. 
Though  singular  in  appearance,  it  is  far  from  being 
a  pretty  tree.  A  dark  grey  bark  on  a  short  stem, 
this  giving  rise  to  most  irregular  branches,  whose 
smaller  twigs  are  covered  with  wedge-shaped  leaves, 
besides  being  studded  over  with  flowers  like  a  large 
bottle-brush,  is  the  character  of  the  tree.  When 
the  flowers  are  young  they  are  yellow  and  almost 
pretty,  but  as  the  tree  is  a  very  long  time  in  flower, 
their  beauty  is  quite  taken  away  by  the  proximity 
of  others  in  various  stages  of  decay.  This  makes 


LIMESTONE    '  BISCUITS.'  43 

the  tree  look  old-looking,  withered,  and  decidedly 
unsightly,  more  especially  as  age  makes  it  more 
straggling,  and  the  old  seed-vessels  remain  on  for 
years.  The  flowers  produce  a  good  deal  of  honey 
in  spring,  whence  the  colonial  name.  It  is  classed 
among  R.  Brown's  Proteacece,  in  De  Candolle's  Mo- 
nochlamydece.  From  the  description  given,  it  will 
be  seen  that  a  large  plain,  thickly  studded  with 
such  trees,  would  be  rather  uninteresting.  But  the 
nature  of  the  soil  makes  it  far  more  so.  It  may  be 
described  as  a  dark  grey  pipe-clay,  thinly  grassed, 
covered  with  water  in  winter,  and  holes  in  summer. 
Cattle,  by  treading  about  it  in  winter  and  spring, 
leave  the  ground  covered  with  their  deep  foot-prints, 
so  that  where  the  sun  has  baked  the  land  the  surface 
is  as  uneven  as  troubled  waters.  Riding  or  driving 
is  particularly  unpleasant  in  such  a  place  ;  but 
what  makes  them  even  dangerous  is  the  existence 
of  numerous  pitfalls,  about  a  foot  deep  and  wide. 
These  are  made  by  a  small  cray-fish,  which  abounds 
in  the  plains  when  it  is  covered  with  water.  How 
such  large  holes  are  excavated  by  so  small  an  ani- 
mal, appears  quite  mysterious.  It  must  be  sup- 
posed that  they  are  guided  by  instinct  to  do  this, 
in  order  that  they  may  still  have  a  home  long  after 
the  land  has  dried  up  elsewhere. 

The  '  biscuits,'  however,  are  the  great  curiosities 
of  this  honeysuckle  country.  These  are  round  flat 
pieces  of  limestone,  of  various  sizes,  as  like  wine 
biscuits  as  stones  could  possibly  be.  Sometimes 
they  are  small,  that  is,  about  the  size  of  a  penny- 


44  LIMESTONE    '  BISCUITS. 

piece,  covering  the  ground  so  thickly  that  nothing 
else  can  be  seen  on  any  side.  In  other  places  they 
are  quite  as  numerous,  but  rather  more  like  dump- 
lings than  biscuits,  being  of  a  large  size  and  nearly 
spherical.  They  present  everywhere  a  most  sin- 
gular appearance,  more  resembling  a  shingly  beach 
than  a  plain  far  removed  from  the  sea.  Generally 
speaking,  they  are  seldom  found  where  there  are 
many  trees,  or  where  the  soil  is  dark  and  black. 
Any  open  space,  thinly  grassed,  with  a  pipe-clay 
soil,  seems  to  favour  their  growth  the  most.  Per- 
sons would  be  led  to  imagine  that  they  are  the 
remains  of  coast  action — in  fact,  that  the  biscuits 
are  nothing  more  than  what  they  most  resemble, 
namely,  shingles ;  and  this  would  appear  more 
probable,  because,  about  fifteen  miles  west  of  the 
locality  where  biscuits  most  abound,  the  ground  is 
strewn  with  shells  of  existing  species,  showing  that 
it  cannot  be  very  long  since  the  sea  was  rolling 
where  they  are  found.  But  there  are  many  reasons 
why  this  is  not  the  true  account  of  their  origin. 
Shingles  are  seldom  found  except  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  cliffs,  and  there  are  no  remains  of  anything 
of  the  kind  here.  Besides,  on  all  the  coast,  even 
where  there  are  cliffs,  no  such  things  as  shingles 
are  perceptible,  because  the  limestone  is  of  so  soft 
and  friable  a  nature,  that  if  any  portions  become  de- 
tached they  are  soon  worn  away.  But  the  strongest 
reason  of  all  against  their  being  shingles  is,  that  a 
much  more  satisfactory  theory  can  be  formed  for 
their  origin  —  one  also  which  is  grounded  on  a 


LIMESTONE    '  BISCUITS.'  45 

cause  which  is  still  presumed  to  be  going  on ;  it  is 
as  follows : — 

It  has  been  already  observed  that  the  ground  is 
generally  pitted  over  with  little  depressions,  in 
which  the  remaining  water  collects  as  soon  as  the 
dry  weather  sets  in.  These  are  the  last  to  dry  up. 
In  doing  so,  a  small  quantity  of  lime  and  pipe-clay 
(in  which  soil  they  only  occur)  gets  hardened  into 
a  cake  at  the  bottom.  When  the  summer  goes  on, 
and  before  they  are  quite  dry,  they  curl  up  to  some 
extent,  becoming  detached  from  the  ground,  and, 
when  quite  hardened,  the  atmosphere  and  rain, 
during  the  ensuing  winter,  give  them  their  rounded 
form.  That  this  is  the  whole  of  the  process  may 
be  easily  perceived  by  any  one  who  examines  a  few 
of  the  biscuits  where  they  are  thickly  strewn,  and 
then  every  stage  of  the  process  can  be  seen.  Where 
there  is  more  lime  and  pipe-clay,  the  mud  (for  such 
it  is)  gets  detached  in  large  fragments,  and  this  is 
the  cause  of  the  big  spherical  masses.  Where  they 
are  very  small  and  thin,  they  appear  to  be  formed 
from  a  large  sheet  of  hardened  sediment,  which  has 
cracked  away  and  become  subsequently  broken 
small  by  the  weather. 

This  explanation,  simple  as  it  may  appear,  would 
hardly  be  thought  of  at  first  sight.  The  appear- 
ance of  the  plains,  with  scattered  small  rounded 
stones,  is  so  original  and  peculiar,  that  one  might 
pass,  wondering  over  them,  a  hundred  times,  with- 
out a  satisfactory  explanation  occurring  to  him. 
And  yet,  how  simply  they  tell  their  own  story  when 


46  LIMESTONE    'BISCUITS.' 

examined;  so  true  it  is  that  natural  phenomena 
are  open  before  us  like  a  book  to  read  from,  if  we 
will  only  pay  attention  to  every  word  and  letter, 
to  everything  presented.  However,  there  might 
arise  cases  where  these  stones  would  form  a  great 
puzzle  to  a  geologist.  Supposing  the  land  were  to 
be  submerged  again,  and  covered  with  another 
formation  :  after  an  upheaval,  a  geologist,  finding 
a  bed  of  these  rounded  fragments  of  irregular  sizes, 
would  scarcely  be  inclined  to  attribute  their  origin 
to  the  real  cause. 

It  may  be  mentioned,  that  some  of  the  '  biscuits  ' 
are  covered  with  small  mammillations  or  rounded 
protuberances,  sometimes  so  far  raised  as  to  give 
them  the  appearance  of  a  piece  of  a  nullipore  coral. 
As  this  is  a  constant  form,  and  does  not  vary  much 
in  the  different  specimens  where  it  is  found,  it  must 
be  due  to  some  more  regular  cause  than  the  weather. 
Unless  they  arose  from  the  splashing  of  rain-drops 
from  pools  highly  charged  with  lime,  no  other 
cause  can  be  assigned  ;  and  that  this  is  not  a  very 
unreasonable  hypothesis  will  appear  from  what  will 
be  said  at  the  end  of  the  chapter.  Some  of  the 
'biscuits'  are  also  rather  curiously  honeycombed, 
and  appear  like  fragments  of  scoriae,  but  this  is 
clearly  due  to  weather-wearing. 

In  places  where  there  is  a  mixture  of  sand  and 
pipe-clay,  and,  consequently,  where  the  flora  is  of 
a  more  diversified  character,  possessing  often  many 
varieties  of  the  Eucalyptus  and  Acacia,  the  soil  has 
another  remarkable  peculiarity.  It  is  known  by  the 


THE   SOILS.  47 

provincial  name  of  Dead  Men's  Graves,'  or  '  Biscay 
Country' — names  which  are  disagreeably  expressive 
of  the  real  state  of  things.  Large  tracts  of  this 
kind  of  soil  are  seen  to  be  covered  with  mounds  just 
like  graves  in  a  churchyard,  only  far  more  closely 
packed  together  than  in  the  most  thriving  of  our 
intramural  cemeteries.  Sometimes  these  mounds  are 
two  or  three  feet  high,  and  then  they  are  rounder 
in  form ;  but,  more  commonly,  they  are  no  more  than 
a  foot  in  height,  and  then  they  are  long  and  narrow, 
exactly  within  the  requirements  of  the  name  they 
bear.  They  are  never  seen,  except  where  there  is 
a  good  deal  of  surface-water  in  winter.  Those  who 
have  had  an  opportunity  of  watching  them  during 
all  seasons  of  the  year,  maintain  that,  during  the 
rainy  season,  when  water  has  collected  around  them, 
some  of  the  rounder  portions  may  be  seen  to  heave 
up  and  down  in  little  bubbles,  and  the  water  all 
about  has  a  frothy  appearance,  as  though  fermen- 
tation was  going  on.  This  I  have  never  observed; 
but,  as  the  account  agrees  very  well  with  certain 
facts,  and,  moreover,  corresponds  with  a  theory  I 
should  have  been  inclined  to  propose  for  the  origin 
of  some  of  these  mounds,  the  observation  is  highly 
probable. 

The  water  on  these  flats,  no  matter  what  is  the 
colour  of  the  soil,  is  of  a  very  milky  appearance, 
even  when  in  small  quantities.  When  some  of  the 
mounds  are  dug  into,  and  the  rock  upon  which 
they  lay  is  exposed  to  view,  at  a  very  moderate 
depth,  it  is  not  a  limestone,  but  a  magnesian  lime- 


48  THE    SOILS. 

stone  or  dolomite,  very  compact  and  hard.  Now 
the  strata,  as  will  be  shown  subsequently,  to  which 
these  rocks  belong,  are  full  of  corals,  and  more  com- 
monly bryozoa  corallines.  These  possess  a  large 
quantity  of  magnesia,  more,  indeed,  than  any  other 
fossil.*  At  any  rate,  I  have  ascertained  by  analy- 
sis that  the  quantity  of  magnesia,  not  only  in  the 
rock  but  in  all  the  springs  which  proceed  from 
it,  is  very  large  indeed.  Now,  though  it  is  much 
disputed,  among  scientific  men,  what  is  the  precise 
origin  of  dolomite,  yet  it  is  considered  pretty  nearly 
proved  that  it  is  not  always  produced  by  the  same 
cause,  and  it  is  generally  recognised  that  pseudo- 
morphic  action  causes  it,  and  this  action  takes  place 
more  frequently  at  the  surface  of  rocks  than  any- 
where else ;  very  probably,  therefore,  the  fermenta- 
tion observed  is  the  result  of  the  chemical  action 
of  carbonates  of  magnesia  and  lime  upon  each 
other,  and  this  action  gives  rise  to  those  mounds 
whence  the  gas  escapes  and  where  dolomite  is 
found.  Water  would  appear  to  be  the  exerting 
cause,  aided,  no  doubt,  by  the  warm  temperature 
which  prevails  in  this  climate.  As  to  what  is  the 
nature  of  the  action,  or  what  kind  of  gas  emanates 
from  these  bubbles,  cannot  be  more  than  guessed, 

*  Forchammer  analysed  a  great  many  shells  to  prove  this,  and  found 
that,  while  univalves  such  as  the  Cerithium  telescopicum  and  Nautilus 
Pompilius  contained,  respectively,  only  such  small  quantities  of  mag- 
nesia as  O189,  0-118  per  cent.,  Corals,  such  as  the  Isis  hippuris  or 
Corallium  nobile,  contained  as  much  as  6'362,  2 '132.  Dana,  also,  in 
his  investigations  on  dolomite,  proves  that  coralline  rocks  contain 
sometimes  more  than  38  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  magnesia.  Species 
of  the  Isis  are  very  common  in  the  strata  here  referred  to. 


THE    TREES.  49 

without  observation ;  but,  as  dolomite  is  proved  to 
be  a  double  salt  of  magnesia,  lime,  and  carbonic 
acid,  the  proportions  of  which  have  not  been  ex- 
actly ascertained,  probably  the  gas  is  carbonic 
acid,  more  being  in  the  lime  than  is  required  for 
the  salt,  and  becomes,  consequently,  liberated.  But 
this  is  mere  conjecture. 

To  prevent  this  theory  being  applied  too  widely, 
it  is  not  meant  to  account  for  the  origin  of  all 
the  broken  country  —  or  even  of  all  the  mounds— 
which  occur  in  the  same  locality ;  the  greater 
proportion  of  them  are  undoubtedly  due  to  the 
unequal  effect  of  water  upon  the  soils  on  which  it 
lays.  Certainly,  the  limestone  alone  cannot  be 
considered  a  proper  accounting  cause,  for  these 
mounds  are  found  in  places  where  there  is  no  lime- 
stone at  all;  neither  do  they  occur  everywhere, 
though  the  same  rock  be  present,  and  the  surface 
covered  with  water  for  a  long  time  during  the 
winter. 

I  am  almost  tempted  to  stray  out  of  the  limits 
to  which  this  book  should  be  confined,  to  speculate 
upon  one  very  peculiar  feature  of  this  district, 
namely,  the  distribution  of  the  trees.  There  have 
already  been  described  localities  which  are  covered 
with  trees  of  only  one  kind,  as  the  Mallee  Scrub, 
the  Stringy  Bark,  and  the  Honeysuckle  country. 
Again,  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  district,  every 
available  rise  is  tenanted  by  a  great  variety  of  trees. 
There  are  parts  of  the  Mosquito  Plains  barely 
tenanted  by  any  trees  at  all ;  in  fact,  many  square 


50  THE    TKEES. 

miles  could  be  picked  out  growing  nothing  but 
grass.  What  is  the  cause  of  this?  As  there  are 
great  doubts  in  my  own  mind  whether  I  could 
throw  any  light  upon  the  subject  by  the  few  ob- 
servations I  have  made,  I  will  not  dwell  further 
on  the  subject  than  to  state  one  rule  which  appears 
to  me  to  be  universal  here.  Wherever  there  is  an 
elevation,  no  matter  how  moderate,  provided  it  be 
sufficient  to  obtain  drainage,  and  has  any  kind  of 
soil  fitted  to  support  vegetation,  trees  will  abound, 
thicker,  perhaps,  in  proportion  to  the  shelter  they 
receive :  so  true  is  this  that  the  converse  may  almost 
be  relied  upon ;  and,  whenever  trees  are  found  more 
abundantly  in  certain  spots,  these  may  be  considered 
higher  than  the  country  immediately  around,  even 
though  the  difference  may  not  be  perceptible.  Per- 
haps it  will  be  a  sufficient  excuse  for  this  digression 
to  mention,  that  from  minutiaB  of  the  kind  a  good 
idea  can  only  be  obtained  of  the  aspect  of  the 
district  I  wish  to  bring  before  my  readers." 

Some  peculiarities  of  the  swamps  must  yet  be 
mentioned  before  this  chapter  concludes.  As  to 
their  living  inhabitants,  their  name  is  legion.  A 
small  fish  is  common  to  them  all.  Though  often 
seen  by  me  in  the  water,  it  has  never  received  a 
closer  examination.  The  bones  of  them  may  be 
found,  from  time  to  time,  embedded  in  the  mud. 
What  is  somewhat  curious,  these  fish  are  found  in 
small  waterholes  which  have  no  connection  with 
any  running  stream,  and  have  been  dry  all  the 
summer.  The  natives  call  the  fish  Lap-lap,  and 


THE   LAKES.  61 

seem  to  be  fond  of  them,  though  I  have  never  seen 
any  larger  than  about  two  inches  long.  There  is 
also  the  cray-fish,  already  alluded  to  as  occurring  in 
the  plains.  The  shells  of  these  are  also  very  fre- 
quently found  embedded  in  the  mud.  There  are 
also  the  usual  amount  of  fresh-water  mollusca. 
The  species  of  these  vary  in  number  in  different 
•localities.  Thus,  for  instance,  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Penola,  the  Limned  stagnalis,  or  a  spe- 
cies closely  allied,  is  very  common.  Some  of  the 
swamps  are  full  of  them,  and  those  which  are 
shallow  and  become  dry  every  year  have  the  bottom 
whitened  over  with  their  numerous  thin  and  tran- 
sparent shells.  Thus  are  fresh-water  beds  formed. 
On  the  Mosquito  Plains  a  variety  of  the  Paludina 
is  most  common,  but  their  shells  are  never  very 
numerous.  In  some  of  the  brackish  lakes  above  the 
plains  the  mollusca  abound  most,  and  are  really 
a  most  singular  feature.  At  a  place  called  Lake 
Roy  there  are  several  salt  or  brackish  marshes, 
covered  with  the  usual  tangled  dank  vegetation. 
One,  however,  is  rather  clearer  than  the  rest,  and  this 
has  all  round  its  margin  what  appears  at  a  distance 
not  unlike  a  bank  of  sand.  It  is  entirely  composed 
of  small  shells  of  fresh- water  mollusca,  being,  as  I 
believe,  a  species  of  Paludina.  None  of  them  are 
more  than  about  half  an  inch  in  length,  and  very 
few  attain  even  that  length,  so  the  numbers  may  be 
guessed  when  they  form  a  deposit  several  feet  thick 
many  yards  round  a  lake  certainly  more  than  half 

E   2 


52  THE    LAKES. 

a  mile  broad  and  long.    There  is  a  singular  scarcity 
of  land  shells  all  over  this  district.     I  never  met 
with  any  but  a  few  of  one  species  of  Succinea  in 
the  sand-drift  near  Guichen   Bay.     There  are  a 
great  many  varieties  of  the   minute    crustacean 
Cypris  in  every  lake,  but  more  especially  in  the 
water  which  has  collected  at  the  bottom  of  caves. 
In  some  of  these  little  subterranean  lakes  at  Mount 
Gambier  the  water  actually  looks  turbid  from  their 
immense  numbers,  and,  if  a  little  of  the  mud  is 
taken  from  the  bottom  and  examined,  it  will  be 
found  to  consist  almost  entirely  of  their  shells. 
The  Cyclops  vulgaris  is  also  extremely  common 
here  as  elsewhere,  and  serves  in  like  manner  to  give 
the  water  a  troubled  appearance,  so  numerous  does 
it  at  length  become  in  some  of  the  swamps.    Many 
other  of  their  living   inhabitants  might  here  be 
enumerated,  but  they  would,  from  the  above  speci- 
men, form  but  little  exception  to  what  are  found 
in  fresh  and  salt  water.     As  yet,  my  attention  has 
very  little  diverted  to  the  microscopic  forms  occur- 
ring in  them,  though  I  have  no  doubt  there  is  a 
very  rich  field  open  to  the  investigator,  not  only 
for  Infusorice,  properly  so  called,  but  for  many  new 
varieties  of  Desimadce  and  Diatomacece.    The  sands 
also,  which  are  so  very  plentiful  in  this  district, 
have  shown  that  in  many  instances  they  are  entirely 
composed  of  the  siliceous  shields  of  Diatomacece. 
In  one  cave,  indeed,  where  the  sand  had  the  con- 
sistence of  white  flour,  and  appeared   somewhat 
different   from   the   arenaceous  deposits  in  other 


THE    LAKES.  53 

localities,  it  was  found  to  be  wholly  composed  of 
the  frustules  of  these  minute  beings. 

It  is  worth  while  here  to  mention  two  other 
swamps  which  are  remarkable  for  their  deposits,  es- 
pecially as  there  will  be  no  other  place  in  this  work 
where  they  can  be  conveniently  noticed.  One  is 
a  fresh-water  lagoon,  not  very  far  from  Guichen 
Bay.  It  is  shallow  and  dries  annually,  and  then 
its  bottom  and  sides  seem  to  be  encrusted  with 
a  white  efflorescence  very  much  like  salt.  Many 
persons  who  have  been  constantly  passing  this 
lake  assured  me  that  the  lake  water  was  salt,  and 
that  the  white  deposit  was  the  crystallised  salt. 
On  examination,  however,  the  water  was  found  to 
be  fresh,  and  the  deposit  no  other  than  an  amazingly 
thick  growth,  of  a  very  white  variety  of  the  com- 
mon Chara*  The  quantity  of  this  little  plant  is 
enormous,  since  it  covered  the  whole  bottom  of  the 
lagoon,  and  the  banks  are  formed  of  broken  por- 
tions, some  inches  in  thickness.  The  other  lake 
worthy  of  notice  is  close  to  the  sea,  very  deep,  and 
with  its  banks  crowded  with  a  rank  vegetation. 
One  of  the  shrubs  found  there  occurs  in  no  other 
part  of  this  colony,  so  far  to  the  east,  excepting  on 
a  few  spots  near  the  shore:  this  is  the  Corethro- 
stylis  Sclmltzenii.  The  waters  of  the  lake  are  very 
salt  and  bitter,  and  of  a  dark  yellow  colour.  It  is 
so  highly  charged  with  lime  and  magnesia  that 
pieces  of  wood  and  roots  of  trees  plunged  into  it 

*  Lake  Wallace,  another  fine  sheet  of  water,  is  covered  with  a  very 
thick  growth  of  Valtisneria  spiralis. 


54  THE   LAKES. 

become  in  a  very  short  time  enamelled  with  lime- 
stone. There  can  be  little  doubt  that,  if  left  long 
enough,  it  would  change  the  texture  of  the  inter- 
nal parts  of  the  wood  and  partly  petrify  it.  The 
bottom  is  of  very  soft  clay,  so  deep  and  finely 
levigated  that  a  pole  may  be  plunged  ten  or  twelve 
feet  into  it  with  a  very  small  pressure.  What  is 
very  singular,  the  lake,  though  scarcely  a  hundred 
yards  across,  abounds  with  fish.  I  have  been  in- 
formed that  it  was  the  custom  of  persons  fishing 
on  the  coast  to  place  very  small  ones  in  this  lake. 
Some  of  them  are  now  very  large,  and  how  they 
exist  in  water  so  highly  impregnated  with  salt  is 
certainly  curious. 

In  mentioning  that  some  of  the  swamps  have 
high  banks  of  vegetable  mould  round  them,  it 
should  be  stated  that  these  have  sometimes  been 
found  by  me  to  contain  bones  of  small  marsupiala 
of  existing  species,  at  a  very  small  depth  below 
the  surface.  It  is  easy  to  understand  how  these 
become  embedded  there.  During  the  summer,  the 
swamp  being  dried  up,  the  bottom  becomes  a  place 
of  resort  for  vegetable-feeding  marsupials,  as  the 
grass  is  longer  and  greener  there  than  elsewhere. 
Here  the  smaller  ones  frequently  fall  a  prey  to  the 
eagles  (Aquila  fucosa]  and  other  birds  of  prey, 
unfortunately  too  common  in  the  district,  who 
leave  the  bones  after  devouring  their  victims.  I 
have  frequently  met  with  remains  of  this  kind  when 
riding  across  the  dry  swamps.  The  westerly  winds 
in  winter  heap  these  up  with  the  other  detritus  on 


THE    LAKES.  „  55 

to  the  mounds.  Bones  of  larger  animals  have  also 
been  found  in  the  same  sort  of  place,  but  not  in 
this  district.  At  Lake  Colac,  not  far  from  Geelong, 
on  a  huge  mound,  near  the  lake,  a  great  quantity 
of  very  large  bones  were  found,  as  I  am  informed 
by  a  gentleman  who  resided  near  there.  Probably 
they  were  bones  of  that  large  kangaroo  called  the 
Euro,  which  is  only  now  found  in  the  very  far  north, 
but  which,  from  bones  in  my  possession,  obtained 
from  caves  in  this  district,  must,  at  one  time,  have 
flourished  as  far  south  as  this  latitude,  which  is 
little,  if  any,  to  the  north  of  Lake  Colac.  They 
might,  however,  have  been  bones  of  the  extinct 
marsupials,  similar  to  those  found  on  the  Hunter 
River,  New  South  Wales. 

The  animals  to  which  the  bones  belonged  very 
likely  perished  in  the  soft  mud  of  the  lake,  in 
attempting  to  get  water.  Similar  instances  are  of 
daily  occurrence.  Persons  unacquainted  with  the 
locality  are  often  astonished  at  the  quantity  of  bones 
of  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses  which  are  round  some 
of  the  deep  swamps,  which  must  have  accumulated 
during  the  last  seventeen  years,  as  the  district 
has  not  been  settled  upon  longer.  But  in  every 
dry  season  the  mystery  is  solved.  The  poor  ani- 
mals are  driven  by  thirst  to  go  far  into  the  mud 
before  they  can  reach  the  water,  and,  being  unable 
to  extricate  themselves  from  thence,  perish,  and 
leave  their  bones  to  be  embedded  or  washed  up 
during  the  ensuing  winter.  Kangaroo,  wombats, 
&c.,  will  only  be  found  near  watering-places  in 


56  %    DKIFTED    DEPOSITS. 

summer,  and  the  latter,  though  they  burrow  in  dry 
places,  will  often  go  a  very  long  distance  in  search 
of  Avater.  It  is  curious  to  remark,  that  though  I 
have  seen  hundreds  of  kangaroo  in  different  places, 
at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  I  have  never  but  in  one 
instance  seen  any  of  them  drinking. 

This  chapter  has  been  devoted  to  the  description 
of  those  formations  where  geological  relics  may  be 
found  from  what  is  now  taking  place.  There  is  no 
other  deposit  of  bones  found,  except  in  the  crevices 
of  the  limestone  rock,  where,  in  consequence  of  the 
drifting  of  the  winds,  or  by  the  force  of  rains,  little 
masses  of  relics  of  existing  animals  may  be  looked 
for.  One  instance  will  suffice : — At  a  round  water- 
hole,  near  Mount  Gambier,  caused  by  the  falling 
in  of  the  rock,  little  drifts  of  what  look  like  roots 
may  be  found  on  the  ledges  of  the  strata  above  the 
water ;  they  are  composed  of  broken  fossils  from 
the  rock  above,  withered  leaves,  roots,  and  the 
bones  of  native  cats  (Dasyurus  Maugii),  which 
live  in  these  crevices  and  prey  on  birds,  &c.,  and 
some  birds,  in  which  those  of  the  young  of  the 
native  magpie  (Gymnorrliina  leuconota)  are  the 
most  common.  In  some  cases,  the  water  charged 
with  lime  drips  from  above,  and  forms  these  into 
a  conglomerate,  which  would  be  easilv  mistaken 

* 

for  part  of  the  limestone  strata,  if  the  observation 
were  not  carefully  made. 

This  rather  lengthy  chapter  must  now  be 
brought  to  a  close,  and  we  pass  on  to  the  deposit 
of  coralline  rock,  to  which  so  many  references  have 
been  made. 


57 


NOTE  TO  CHAPTER  III. 

There  is  a  curious  circumstance  connected  with  these  swamps 
which  have  an  underground  drainage,  which,  in  any  other  than  a  new 
country,  would  surely  have  been  invested  with  some  ghostly  legend. 
Every  evening,  during  spring  and  the  early  part  of  summer,  distant 
groanings  are  heard,  like  the  lowing  of  a  large  herd  of  cattle,  and  very 
resonant,  near  a  few  swamps,  such,  for  instance,  as  that  situated  near 
Mr.  Donald  M'Arthur's  station,  Limestone  Ridge.  Generally,  three 
such  echoing  sounds  are  heard,  and  then  about  half  an  hour's  repose. 
I  believe  the  sounds  are  entirely  due  to  a  column  of  air  resisting  a 
column  of  water,  which  is  draining  through  the  limestone,  and  finally, 
being  driven  back  or  forwards,  according  to  the  periodical  increase  of 
the  weight  of  water.  To  one  ignorant  of  the  cause,  the  sounds  are 
mournful  and  startling  in  the  extreme,  and  they  are  not  heard  in  the 
day,  probably  because  there  are  so  many  other  sounds  of  cattle,  &c., 
to  mingle  and  be  confused  with  them. 

On  the  coast  also,  where  there  are  sand-stones  (to  be  subsequently 
spoken  of),  noises  like  distant  artillery  are  heard  on  windy  days.  Dr. 
Phipson  mentions  these  sounds  as  being  very  common  on  the  sandy 
parts  of  the  coast  of  England,  and  is  at  a  loss  to  assign  a  cause.  It 
seems,  however,  to  be  in  some  way  connected  with  large  collections  of 
sand.  Sturt  mentions  that  when  in  the  Australian  desert,  surrounded 
by  the  high  hills  of  red  sand  of  that  inhospitable  country,  he  was 
startled  one  morning  by  hearing  a  loud,  clear,  reverberating  explosion, 
like  the  booming  of  artillery.  The  next  morning  he  heard  it  again. 
The  mornings  were  calm  and  clear,  and  they  were  at  least  600  miles 
from  the  settled  districts.  My  brother  (Mr.  T.  A.  Woods),  when  at 
Mount  Serle,  in  the  horseshoe  of  Lake  Torrens,  which  is  a  very  sandy 
desert,  has  frequently  heard  the  same  loud  boomings  on  fine  clear  days. 
They  seemed  to  come  with  a  startling  echo  from  the  sandhills,  and 
reverberated  for  a  long  time  among  the  hills.  Mitchell  and  Sturt  have 
observed  the  same  thing  in  other  parts  of  Australia.  May  the  cause 
not  be  similar  to  that  which  makes  the  sand  musical  at  Eigg  (see 
Hugh  Miller's  '  Cruise  of  the  Betsy?  chap,  iv.),  the  sonorous  moving 
sand  at  Reg  Rawan,  Cabul,  and  the  thundering  sand  of  Jabel  Nablous, 
in  Arabia  Petrsea  ?  In  the  latter  case,  the  mere  falling  of  the  sand 
on  the  rock  beneath  made  a  sound  like  distant  thunder,  and  caused 
the  rocks  to  vibrate.  The  ultimate  cause  is  quite  unexplained. 


58 


CHAPTER  IV. 
THE    KOCKS. 

STRATA  OF   THE    PLAIN. THEIR  UNIFORMITY. CHARACTER  OF 

THE    ROCKS. HORIZONTALITY    OF    THE    BEDS. DISTRIBUTION 

OF    FOSSILS. SAND   PIPES. NATIVE    WELLS.  —  FLINT  LAYERS. 

THEIR   ORIGIN. SEPARATION    OF    SILICA. IRON    PYRITES 

AND    ROCK    SALT. SALT   PANS. FOSSIL    BRYOZOA. AGGRE- 
GATION  OF    FOSSILS. AGE    OF    THE    BEDS.  —  CORALS. HOW 

DEPOSITED. PREVAILING    BRYOZOA. COMPARISON   OF    THESE 

BEDS   WITH    REMAINS    OF    CORAL    REEFS.  —  DIFFICULTY    AS    TO 
THE    NATURE    OF   THE    CORAL.  EXTENT    OF    THESE    BEDS. 

HAVING  occupied  some  considerable  space  in 
the  description  of  what  is  seen  on  the  surface 
of  this  part  of  South  Australia,  that  is  to  say,  the 
physical  features,  the  soils  and  their  products,  it 
now  remains  to  describe  what  peculiarities  are 
next  in  succession,  thus  bringing  us  to  the  con- 
sideration of  the  rocks.  The  district  has  already 
been  described  as  an  immense  plain,  with  very  few 
elevations  of  any  kind,  and  certainly  none  that  can 
be  considered  hills.  Under  such  circumstances, 
very  great  uniformity  in  the  underlying  strata 
must  be  expected,  and,  therefore,  very  little  geo- 
logical variety;  for  abrupt  transitions  from  the 
rocks  of  one  period  to  those  of  others  far  removed 
in  age  are  only  found  in  hilly  countries,  where 
there  has  been  much  upheaval  denudation  and 


THE    LIMESTONE.  59 

general  disturbance.  Near  Adelaide,  for  instance, 
where  bald  and  rugged  hills  are  common,  the  most 
sudden  changes  are  observed  in  the  nature  of  the 
strata.  Thus,  Mount  Lofty  is  a  metamorphic 
rock,  continually  changing  in  its  gullies  to  slates, 
porphyries,  schists,  and  black  limestone,  and  these, 
again,  are  often  covered  with  tertiary  limestone. 
It  must  be  stated,  however,  that  uniformity  is  the 
rule  rather  than  the  exception  in  Australia,  and 
perhaps  there  may  have  been  less  disturbance 
altogether  in  the  southern  than  in  the  northern 
hemisphere.  At  all  events,  the  locality  now  under 
consideration  is  of  a  very  uniform  character,  there 
being  a  large  territory  occupied  by  one  formation, 
and  this  without  alteration  of  level,  break,  or 
interruption. 

Of  the  large  area  spoken  of  in  the  previous 
chapter,  and  covering  many  thousand  square  miles, 
the  series  of  strata  all  belong  to  one  period  and 
have  been  formed  under  the  same  circumstances, 
and,  in  all  probability,  during  the  same  geological 
period.  There  are  only  one  or  two  exceptions  to 
this  continuity,  and  these  are  not  breaks  but 
patches,  where  a  more  modern  deposit  lies  above 
the  older  and  larger  strata.  The  lowest  and  oldest 
will  be  first  described,  because  they  are  the  most 
important,  and  a  knowledge  of  their  characters 
enables  us  much  better  to  understand  the  circum- 
stances under  which  the  others  are  formed.  The 
nature  of  the  rock  now  first  deserves  attention. 

At  about  four  feet  below  the  surface  (sometimes 


GO  THE    UPPEK    LIMESTONE. 

less,  though  seldom  more,)  a  brittle  white  limestone 
is  met  with.  It  is  generally  friable,  and,  being 
much  decomposed,  contains  no  fossils.  By  decom- 
position is  meant  that  it  is  as  fine  as  flour  when 
dry,  and  run  through  in  every  direction  with 
little  veins  of  clay,  which  are  very  like  in  colour 
and  consistence  to  the  chocolate  soil  above  the 
rock.  This  goes  occasionally  to  some  thirty  feet 
below  the  surface,  though  sometimes  not  so  far. 
It  is,  at  times,  entirely  absent,  then  regular  signs 
of  stratification  occur  with  the  commencement  of 
organic  remains.  Here  the  rock  changes  its 
nature  ;  instead  of  being  loose  and  friable,  it  is 
hard  and  close.  It  is  quite  white,  resembling 
chalk,  being  easily  cut  with  a  saw,  and,  though 
rather  soft,  answers  excellently  for  building  pur- 
poses, giving  rise  (from  the  easy  manner  in  which 
it  is  worked)  to  a  more  decorated  style  of  archi- 
tecture than  is  usually  met  with  in  the  bush. 
There  are  no  marks  of  stratification  in  small 
portions  of  the  stone,  but  where  a  large  section  of 
the  beds  is  seen  such  traces  are  very  distinct.  It 
is  there  observed  that  there  are  strata  occurring 

o 

every  fourteen  feet  with  great  regularity,  and  in 
nearly  every  case  parallel  with  the  horizon. 

This  latter  fact  shows  that  there  has  been  no 
violent  upheaval.  The  structure  of  the  strata  is 
not  always  the  same  in  every  case.  In  general, 
where  the  fossils  are  large,  and  containing  many 
bivalve  shells,  the  stone  is  very  hard  and  du- 
rable ;  but  where  there  are  only  bryozon  fossils,  or 


FOSSILS.  61 

foraminiferous  remains,  the  stone  is  mere  powder 
when  disturbed.  In  the  latter  case,  the  only  thing 
which  gives  it  the  least  consistency  is  the  occur- 
rence of  twisted  concretions,  whose  appearance 
and  origin  are  best  treated  of  in  a  subsequent 
chapter. 

It  is  generally  remarked  that  the  different 
strata  preserve  distinct  characters.  Either  the 
bivalve  shells  will  predominate,  and  then  the 
whole  stratum  be  firm  and  hard,  or  else  they  will 
be  entirely  wanting,  and  the  stratum  soft  and 
powdery.  Sometimes  a  stratum  will  be  found 
with  a  character  more  or  less  between  the  two, 
but  this  is  unusual.  Without  stopping  now  to 
examine  the  nature  of  the  organic  remains,  any 
more  than  to  state  that  the  most  passing  exami- 
nation shows  the  rock  to  be  nothing  else  than  a 
mass  of  fossils  cemented  together,  and  even  the 
dust  is  seen  by  the  microscope  to  teem  with  the 
relics  of  life,  several  other  peculiarities  of  the 
strata  have  now  to  be  mentioned. 

The  stone  has  been  described  as  very  like  chalk. 
This  resemblance  might  be  ascribed  to  the  whole 
formation.  Many  analogies  might  be  here  men- 
tioned, but  two  things  which  make  the  likeness 
very  striking  are  here  selected :  these  are  '  sand- 
pipes  '  and  layers  of  black  and  white  chalk  flints. 
The  first  are  well  known  to  those  who  have  exa- 
mined any  of  the  chalk-beds  of  Europe.  They  are 
described  by  Sir  C.  Lyell  as  'deep  hollows  of  a 
cylindrical  form,  found  penetrating  the  white  chalk, 


62  SAND    PIPES. 

and  filled  with  sand  and  gravel.'  They  all  taper 
downwards,  and  end  in  a  point.  As  a  general 
rule,  sand  and  pebbles  occupy  the  central  parts 
of  each  pipe,  while  the  sides  and  bottom  are  lined 
with  clay.  The  strata  under  consideration  are  full 
of  these.  When  a  section  of  the  rocks,  they  are 
observed  in  great  numbers,  some  about  eighteen 
inches  in  width,  and  not  extending  below  the  first 
stratum  ;  others  are  wider  than  two  feet,  and 
going  to  a  considerable  depth.  Sir  Charles  Lyell 
supposes  these  to  have  arisen,  in  the  first  instance, 
by  coast  action,  and  to  have  been  subsequently 
defined  by  the  action  of  water  charged  with  car- 
bonic acid,  which  would  dissolve  and  decompose 
the  limestone.  The  clay  in  the  stone  would  be  de- 
rived partly  from  the  disintegration  of  the  stone 
and  partly  from  above.  This  is  the  theory  received 
at  present.  Two  circumstances  observed  here  tend 
to  bear  out  its  truth.  Whenever  the  limestone  is 
decomposed,  it  gives  rise  to  clay  very  much  like 
what  is  found  in  these  pipes,  and  their  cylindrical 
form  is  due  to  a  process  which  is  seen  at  present 
in  operation  on  the  coast.  In  the  latter  place, 
wherever  the  sea  has  much  action  on  the  rocks, 
the  pipes  are  seen  in  every  stage  of  their  formation ; 
sometimes  as  a  mere  basin,  where  the  water  col- 
lects and  dissolves  the  limestone;  in  places  as 
little  wells  of  varying  depths,  and  in  this  and  every 
other  instance  lined  with  a  coating  of  laminated 
limestone  all  round,  so  that  the  surface  of  the 
outermost  coat  forms  a  continuous  lining  to  the 


SAND    PIPES.  03 

pipe.  It  does  not  appear  why  these  should  form 
so  rapidly  as  they  evidently  do.  In  other  respects, 
the  phenomena  may  be  explained  by  supposing 
the  sea-water  to  dissolve  the  limestone  and  re-pre- 
cipitate it  with  some  of  its  own  salts  round  its  sides 
during  the  evaporation  of  the  water.  The  solvent 
power  of  the  water,  and  not  the  violence  with  which 
it  is  dashed  into  these  pipes,  can  be  alone  looked  to 
for  an  explanation,  for  the  process  goes  on  in  those 
which  are  only  filled  by  rain.  There  will  be  occa- 
sion, by  and  by,  to  mention  these  pipes  again,  in 
connection  with  the  so-called  fossil-trees  so  common 
on  the  Australian  coast. 

Next  to  these  pipes  in  resemblance  and  in  inte- 
rest are  what  are  termed  the  '  native  wells.'  These 
are  round  hollow  tubes,  going  to  a  great  depth 
(generally  the  water-level),  three  or  four  feet  wide, 
and  bearing  considerable  likeness  to  an  artificial 
well.  Between  Mount  Gambier  and  Mount  Shanck 
the  ground  is  studded  all  over  with  these  wells  ; 
some  are  as  wide  as  five  feet,  and  have  been 
sounded  with  a  hundred  feet  of  line  without  find- 
ing bottom,  though  water  has  been  obtained  at 
depths  varying  from  sixty  to  ninety  feet.  Their 
origin  must  be  different  from  the  sand  pipes.  They 
are,  perhaps,  connected  with  caves  or  reservoirs  of 
water  underneath,  and  when,  in  consequence  of 
some  original  depression  in  the  ground,  the  water 
was  able  to  rest  upon  the  limestone  and  decompose 
it,  a  passage  was  easily  formed  to  the  water-level 
below.  This  is  merely  offered  as  a  suggestion. 


64  FLINT  LAYERS. 

One  fact  (probably  of  not  much  importance  either 
way)  may  be  mentioned :  —  The  '  native  wells,'  as 
they  are  called,  are  only  seen  where  caves  are  com- 
mon, and  where  the  ground  in  the  vicinity  sounds 
hollow  on  percussion.  At  a  cave  in  the  township 
of  Mount  Gambier,  where  a  long  subterranean  pas- 
sage is  filled  with  water,  several  of  these  natural 
wells  lead  down  to  it,  and  one  or  two  may  be 
noticed  where  a  section  of  the  strata  is  seen,  and 
the  decomposing  rock  in  one  well  has  not  yet 
reached  the  cave.  Though  this  is  broad,  it  is  filled 
with  clay,  while  another  narrower  has  bored 
through  and  is  empty. 

The  next  point  of  resemblance  between  these 
strata  and  the  chalk  is  the  occurrence  of  layers  of 
flint  similar  to  those  met  with  in  the  latter  forma- 
tion. Their  characteristics  are  almost  the  same  as 
those  found  in  Europe,  being  most  frequently  black, 
containing  sponges,  corals,  spiniferites,  &c.,  im- 
bedded and  occurring  in  layers.  Some  of  them 
are  large  and  rounded;  but  at  one  place  on  the 
coast  (Port  M'Donnell)  they  occur  in  sheets  of 
very  great  extent,  and  about  two  or  three  inches 
thick,  and  are  quarried  and  used  as  flags.  It  is 
stated  by  those  who  have  had  much  experience  as 
well- sinkers  in  this  neighbourhood,  that  a  layer  of 
them  is  always  found  immediately  above  the  water 
level,  and,  as  far  as  my  own  observation  goes,  the 
strata  are  generally  parallel  with  those  layers. 

It  is  generally  admitted,  by  those  who  have 
written  on  the  subject  of  the  chalk  flints,  that  they 


FLINT   LAYERS.  65 

are  derived  from  the  filtration  of  silica  through  the 
strata,  but  it  has  not  been  satisfactorily  explained 
why  they  should  occur  in  layers,  nor  what  is  the 
nature  of  the  process  by  which  silica  acid  becomes 
free.  Perhaps  one  circumstance  has  been  over- 
looked in  the  theory  of  filtering  through.  Though 
water  will  dissolve  a  certain  amount  of  silica,  it 
will  much  more  readily  dissolve  carbonates  of  lime 
and  magnesia.  Supposing  each  to  have  been  dis- 
solved in  small  proportions,  silica  should  have  been 
the  last  to  filter  through,  because  its  specific  gravity 
is  less  than  either  of  the  other  salts.  It  may  be 
that  chemical  action  goes  on  between  the  carbon- 
ates of  lime  and  magnesia,  in  the  formation  of 
dolomite,  which  contains  a  very  small  portion  of 
silica,  and  that,  mechanically  mixed,*  this  leaves 
the  silica  to  aggregate  by  itself.  Sea  water  does 
not  contain  much  of  the  latter  mineral,  and 
coral  scarcely  more.  Sponges,  however,  and  their 
spicula,  contain  a  great  deal,  and  the  shells  of 
infusoria  are  nearly  entirely  composed  of  it. 
Both  are  most  abundant  in  .the  sands  on  the 
coast,  and  may  probably  have  been  so  where  the 
flints  are  found ;  in  fact,  the  latter  often  contain 
fossil  sponges  as  a  nucleus.  That  chemical  changes 
do  take  place  in  the  rocks,  and  lead  to  an  associa- 
tion of  minerals  of  one  kind,  is  seen,  from  another 
part  of  the  same  formation,  at  Portland,  Victoria, 
where  there  are  many  veins  of  soapstone  occurring 
in  the  strata,  and  running  through  them  without 

*  Forcharuiner. 
F 


66  FLINT   LAYERS. 

any  appearance  of  a  break  or  dislocation  in  the 
rock. 

It  may  be  remarked,  as  serving  to  elucidate  the 
origin  of  such  nodules,  that  they  are  only  found 
where  the  beds  are  proved  to  have  been  derived 
from  coralline  and  coral  beds,  rich  in  fossil  corals, 
bryozoa,  sponges,  and  infusorisB.  The  beds  now 
described  are  tertiary,  certainly  not  the  only  ones 
which  contain  flint  —  features  at  one  time  sup- 
posed to  be  confined  to  the  chalk.  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  observation  is  much  wanted  as  to  the 
manner  in  which  silica  may  be  deposited  by  filtra- 
tion. Quartz  veins  of  segregation  are  familiar  to 
every  one,  and  there  will  be  yet  occasion  to  describe 
instances  of  segregation  which  will  prove  that  a 
great  deal  has  yet  to  be  learned  before  a  compre- 
hensive theory  can  be  formed,  which  account  for 
the  many  and  various  facts  met  with.  Mr.  Sorby's 
important  paper  on  the  microscopic  structure  of 
crystals  (read  before  the  Geological  Society,  Decem- 
ber 2,  1857)  is  something  done  in  this  particular. 
As  this  has  shown  .where  the  field  lies,  its  value 
can  scarcely  be  overrated.  It  has  thrown  light 
where  all  before  was  gloomy  conjecture.  Though 
any  theory  would  as  yet  be  premature,  yet  geolo- 
gists can  already  see  which  way  facts  tend,  and  at 
any  rate  there  is  something  to  work  upon  —  an 
opening  for  the  thin  edge  of  the  inductive  wedge. 

The  fact  of  the  strata  being  similar  in  compo- 
sition to  the  chalk,  besides  containing  flints  and 
sand  pipes,  might  mislead  superficial  observers,  who 
had  not  examined  the  fossil,  to  think  the  two  depo- 


FLINT   LAYERS.  67 

sits  identical.  This  is  one  of  the  many  examples 
of  the  fallacy  of  laying  any  stress  on  such  charac- 
teristics. Physical  properties  (if  the  term  may  be 
allowed)  may  produce  the  same  results  in  strata 
vastly  remote  from  each  other.  In  all  cases  where 
such  grounds  are  adopted  as  part  of  a  classification 
it  would  be  well  to  be  sure  that  peculiar  circum- 
stances may  not  produce  such  resemblances  where 
dissimilarity  exists  in  every  other  respect.  Had 
this  precaution  been  adopted  by  the  earlier  geolo- 
gists, the  science  would  not  now  be  encumbered 
with  such  ambiguous  terms  as  red  sandstone,  oolite, 
mountain  limestone,  &c.,  &c.  It  may  even  be 
doubted  whether,  at  the  present  day,  definitions  of 
deposits  included  in  any  geological  period  are  not 
encumbered  too  much  with  particulars  of^struc- 
ture.  This  is  a  great  embarrassment  to  the  young 
student  in  remote  countries.  Fossils  should  alone 
be  relied  upon.  This  is  one  of  the  many  instances 
of  the  superiority  of  a  natural  system  of  classifica- 
tion, even  although  an  artificial  one  may  be  useful 
at  times  and  always  easy. 

In  addition  to  flint  layers,  other  minerals  are 
found :  they  are  iron  pyrites  and  rock  salt.  The  first 
is  uncommon  ;  it  is  only  found  near  flints,  which 
are  much  reddened  by  the  oxide  of  iron.  It  hangs 
down,  like  small  stalactites,  in  cavities  in  the 
rock.  The  colour  outside  is  a  dark-reddish  brown, 
the  fracture  showing  yellow  crystals  of  feeble 
brilliancy.  The  rock  salt  is  hard,  massive,  and 
opaque,  so  purely  white  as  to  be  easily  mistaken 

F  2 


68  EOCK    SALT. 

for  quartz.  Very  little  has  been  found.  It  occurs 
on  the  upper  side  of  the  great  divisions  into  which 
the  strata  are  divided.  Being  found  in  cakes,  its 
external  aspect  is  rather  singular,  such,  indeed,  as 
to  make  it  with  difficulty  distinguishable  from  the 
rock  by  which  it  is  surrounded.  The  upper  side 
is  covered  over  with  a  crust  of  dust,  like  the  pow- 
dery rock,  which  looks  as  if  it  had  fallen  on  the 
salt  at  a  time  when  it  was  in  a  soft  state,  and  to 
have  become  subsequently  agglutinated  by  drying 
on.  The  appearance  is  very  like  the  surface  of  dried 
glue  on  which  sawdust  had  been  sprinkled  while 
warm.  No  doubt  the  cause  has  been  the  deliques- 
cent nature,  which  melts  in  damp  moist  weather, 
and  hardens  again  in  drier  seasons.  Its  existence 
here  is  not  easily  accounted  for.  Whatever  may 
be  the  theories  with  regard  to  rock  salt  when  it  oc- 
curs in  large  beds  or  pans,  or  when  it  is  associated 
with  volcanic  emanations,  as  in  the  Carpathian 
Mountains,  certainly  no  such  theories  will  apply 
here.  There  is  nothing  in  the  rock  where  it  occurs 
different  from  places  where  no  rock  salt  is  found  — 
no  traces  of  anything  like  an  immense  evaporating 
surface,  and  so  its  presence  is  simply  an  enigma. 
Perhaps  sea  water  might  have  flowed  down  the 
cracks  of  the  rock,  and  have  become  evaporated  as 
fast  as  it  was  supplied;  but  it  must  be  owned  that 
nothing  has  been  seen  to  bear  out  the  idea.  In 
this  case,  it  would  be  too  gratuitous  an  hypothesis 
to  adopt  the  theory  of  chemical  action  as  a  cause, 
acting  in  a  similar  manner  to  that  in  which  dolo- 
mites, pyrites,  and  flints  are  produced. 


SALT   PANS,    OR    '  SALINAS.'  69 

It  may  be  mentioned  here,  though  more  properly 
belonging  to  another  chapter,  that  salt  pans,  or 
'  salinas,'  are  not  uncommon  in  the  district.  These 
are  immense  basins  or  swamps,  filled  with  brine  in 
the  rainy  season,  and  in  summer  the  water  evapo- 
rates, leaving  a  thick  crust  of  salt  in  the  bottom, 
white  and  glistening,  giving  the  appearance  of  the 
ground  being  covered  with  snow.  Such  places  as 
these  serve  to  supply  the  country  round  with  salt. 
It  is  not  of  a  good  description,  being  generally  very 
coarse  and  dirty,  somewhat  bitter  in  taste,  and 
always  containing  a  small  admixture  of  sulphates 
of  lime  and  magnesia.  Round  most  of  the  lakes 
there  is  a  border  of  whitish  mud,  of  a  very  fetid 
odour,  and  in  this  large  crystals  of  gypsum  and 
natron  occur. 

There  is  no  difficulty  in  accounting  for  these 
deposits.  The  land,  indeed  the  whole  coast,  is  known 
to  be  slowly  rising  from  the  sea,  and  these  pans 
have  been,  in  turn,  depressions  near  the  coast,  sub- 
ject to  occasional  inundations  from  the  ocean.  Of 
course  the  continued  evaporation  of  such  casual 
additions  would  cause  a  great  deposit  of  salt  in  the 
bottom  of  the  lake,  which  would  remain  long  after 
the  time  where  upheaval  had  placed  them  beyond 
the  reach  of  the  sea.  Even  a  large  body  of  salt 
can  be  accounted  for  without  supposing  any  com- 
munication with  the  sea  after  a  slight  upheaval. 
There  is  a  large  lake,  known  as  Lake  Eliza,  not  very 
far  from  Guichen  Bay.  It  has  no  communication 
with  the  ocean,  and  has  once  been  much  deeper 
than  it  is  at  present.  It  has  become  evaporated 


70  FOSSILIFEROUS   LIMESTONE. 

into  an  immense  shallow  pan.  The  water  is  ex- 
cessively salt  and  buoyant.  No  one  can  doubt  that 
by  the  time  the  whole  has  evaporated  there  will 
be  an  immense  quantity  of  salt,  arising  from  the 
large  body  of  sea  water  which  has  dried  up. 

After  having  given  this  much  attention  to  the 
substances  occurring  in  the  rock  under  considera- 
tion, let  us  return  to  the  rock  itself.  It  is,  as  before 
observed,  of  various  consistency,  sometimes  fine 
grained,  and  containing  no  fossils ;  at  other  times, 
exceedingly  rich  in  them.  Where  there  are  none, 
the  stone  seems  to  be  nearly  a  hardened  lime 
paste,  such  as  might  have  been  derived  from  the 
comminution  of  small  Corallines  and  Foraminifera. 
Doubtless  an  Ehrenberg  might  discover  vestiges  of 
an  animal  life  in  them  as  distinct  from  the  micro- 
scopic world  of  Europe  as  they  themselves  are  from 
the  large  fossils  by  which  they  are  surrounded. 
Very  delicate  appliances  for  microscopic  investi- 
gation were  not  within  my  reach,  but  what  has 
come  under  notice  shall  be  here  specified.  It  must 
first  be  mentioned,  some  fossils  of  this  deposit  were 
sent  home  to  the  Geological  Society  in  1859.  From 
the  dust  accompanying  some  of  them,  T.  Rupert 
Jones,  Esq.,  F.G.S.,  was  enabled  to  procure  many 
Foraminifera.  He  stated  that  they  were  mostly  of 
Pleiocene  origin,  and  showed  a  sea  bottom,  which 
must  have  been  covered  with  at  least  between  200 
and  300  fathoms  of  water.  This,  it  may  be  pre- 
sumed, is  only  on  the  supposition  that  the  animals 
lived  where  their  remains  were  found,  and  were  not 
brought  from  a  distance.  It  will  be  easy  to  show 


FOKAMINIFEBA.  71 

hereafter  that  this  supposition  cannot  be  applied 
here.*    For  the  purpose  of  searching  Foraminifera, 
the  finest  dust  was  taken  and  sifted  through  muslin. 
The  dust  which  came  through,  on  being  placed 
under  the  microscope,  appeared  full  of  microscopic 
fossils.    It  would  be  useless  for  me  to  attempt  any- 
thing like  a  classification  without  any  museum  to 
which  I  could  have  recourse  for  the  comparison  of 
specimens ;  it  will  be  sufficient,  however,  to  men- 
tion, that,  though  the  dust  was  composed  entirely 
of  fossils,  they  all  seemed  to  belong  to  D'Orbigny's 
order  of  Monostega,  that  is,  of  shells  comprised  in 
a  single  segment  or  chamber.     If  there  was  any  ex- 
ception to  this  rule,  it  was  in  the  occurrence  of  what 
appeared  to  me  to  be  a  small  Cristellaria ;  there  may 
have  been  other  fossils,  but  my  skill  in  microscopy 
was  not  sufficient  to  enable  me  to  detect  them. 
With  the  larger  dust  which  remained  after  the  sift- 
ing the  variety  was  much  greater.     In  addition  to 
inconceivably  small  fragments  of  Bryozoa,  almost 
every  variety  of  Foraminifera  might  be  found ;  in 
fact,  the  stone  was  a  mass  of  them.     They  were 

*  Since  writing  the  above,  the  following  remarks  have  been  made 
in  the  '  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Geological  Society, '  on  the  subject  of 
some  fossils  sent  home  by  me,  by  Professor  T.  Rupert  Jones,  F.G.S. : — 
'A  small  portion  of  this  deposit  has  yielded  several  Foraminifera, 
namely,  Polymorphina  lactea,  Textularia  pygmcea,  T.  agglutinans, 
Globigerina  bulloides,  Cassidulina  oblonga,  Rosalind  Bertholetiana, 
Rotalalia  Ungeriana,  R.  Haidingerii,  R.  reticulata,  R.  (Anomalina) 
rotula  (rare  —  the  rest  were  marked  more  or  less  common).  The 
above-named  Rhizopods  exist  at  the  present  day,  and .  for  the  most 
part,  in  rather  deep  water,  at  from  200  to  300  fathoms.  It  would  hence 
appear  that  the  fragmentary  Bryozoa  forming  the  mass  of  the  deposit 
were  washed  down  from  a  higher  zone,  and  mingled  with  the  Forami- 
nifera inhabiting  deep  water.' — Geological  Society'1  s  Journal,  November 
1859. 


72  FORAMINJFERA. 

opaque,  but  it  seemed  to  me  that  the  foramina 
were  visible  on  the  surface  in  the  shape  of  minute 
granulations. 

The  coarser  the  dust  the  more  numerous  the 
fossils,  and  the  greater  the  variety.  It  is  impossible 
to  say  whether  the  species  were  similar  to  those 
found  in  the  chalk  and  other  strata  elsewhere.  It 
is  very  probable,  that  though  so  great  a  diversity 
exists  between  the  fauna  of  this  and  other  countries, 
an  equal  difference  does  not  exist  in  the  micro- 
scopic animalcules.*  The  question,  however,  is 
one  well  worth  solution.  If  this  book  should  fall 
into  the  hands  of  any  who  are  willing  to  pursue  this 
subject,  and  have  the  opportunity,  they  have  but  to 
take  a  piece  of  Mount  Gambier  stone  and  brush  it 
with  water.  The  resulting  dust,  when  dried  and 
sifted,  will  afford  ample  material  for  the  examina- 
tion, and  there  cannot  be  a  more  entertaining 
employment  and  amusement  than  to  inspect  the 
innumerable  varieties  of  form  which  a  small  frag- 
ment of  stone  contains  within  itself — to  trace  out 
the  perfect  remains  of  these  tiny  organisations,  and 
to  reflect  that  Time,  which  has  crumbled  the  bones 
of  mighty  kings,  and  torn  down  cities,  has  spared 
these  atoms,  the  date  of  whose  existence  is  so 


*  The  Foraminifera  are  the  oldest  fossils  in  geology.  Some  are 
found  specifically  identical  with  those  occurring  in  Palaeozoic  deposits, 
and  the  species  found  in  the  Arctic  regions,  in  the  Gulf  Stream,  and 
in  Australia,  do  not  differ  from  each  other.  The  large  Operculina 
arabica  and  Globiyerina  buttoides  are  the  most  common  at  Mount 
Gambier.  They  are  so  large  as  to  be  hardly  microscopic.  See  en- 
gravings. 


' ,'  ' 


FOSSIL       BBYOZOA. 


1.  Celltfora  nummularia.    Tiusk  MS.    Mt.  Gambier,  common. 

2.  Cellepora  sponiiiomi.  „  ,,  » 

8.  Cellepora  hemispherica.         „  „  very  common. 

4.  Meliceritaangustiloba.     Busk.  „  common. 

5.  Salicomaria  ninuosa.      A.  Hassall.  „  very  common. 
0.  Joint  of  stony  axis  of  Isii.                             „  ,, 

7.  Etchara.    Very  common  throughout  the  whole  district. 

8.  Axis  of  Coral,  showing  growth  by  deposition  of  calcareous  matter  from  outside. 


BEYOZOA.  73 

remote,  that  '  the  twilight  of  fable '  is  but  as  yes- 
terday in  comparison. 

Besides  the  Foraminifera,  there  is  also  to  be  men- 
tioned the  minute  shells  of  Entomostraca  Brachio- 
poda,  but,  beyond  observing  them,  no  attempt  was 
made  at  their  classification ;  for  the  rest,  the  stone 
is  a  most  strange  mixture.  It  is  chiefly  composed 
of  minute  corals  and  coralline,  but  Bryozoas  are 
the  most  numerous  of  all;  these,  being  so  minute, 
are  crowded  together  in  a  very  compact  manner, 
and  connected  by  the  fine  paste  just  spoken  of. 

For  the  information  of  my  non-scientific  readers, 
I  must  explain  what  Bryozoa,  called  also  Polyozoa, 
means.  It  comes  from  the  Greek  words,  3p<W, 
moss,  and  £toov,  animal ;  and  is  used  to  signify  those 
polypes  which  are  enclosed  in  small  calcareous  or 
horny  sheaths  (moss  corals),  which  they  sometimes 
also  invest.  They  differ  from  true  coral  in  having 
a  more  complex  organisation,  and,  though  much 
smaller,  the  rudiments  of  a  digestive  apparatus  and 
nervous  system  have  been  discovered  in  some  of 
them.  They  also  generally  possess  small  vibratile 
cilia  on  their  tentacles,  in  all  of  which  particu- 
lars they  are  superior  to  their  larger  brethren,  the 
true  coral.  Besides,  they  are  common  to  all  lati- 
tudes, while  the  latter  are  uncommon  outside  the 
tropics.  It  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  the 
distinction  between  the  Bryozoa  and  true  Corals, 
because  it  will  become  evident,  as  we  go  on,  that 
there  has  been  an  extensive  growth  in  southern 
Australian  seas  of  the  former;  and,  as  this  is  a 


74 


FOSSILS   OF   THE   FORMATION. 


peculiar  case,  the  fact  of  its  differing  from  a  tropical 
coral  reef,  in  the  nature  of  the  animals  which  built  it, 
will  help  to  explain  any  anomalies  which  may  arise. 
In  addition,  there  is  the  true  coral — there  are 
many  shells,  generally  small,  and  more  commonly 
univalves  than  bivalves.  It  would  be  difficult  for 
language  to  give  an  idea  of  how  the  fossils  are 
associated  together.  Sometimes  the  shells  are 
whole,  but  more  frequently  only  casts,  but  the 
Bryozoa  are  generally  intact,  and  preserved  just 
as  they  grew.  Occasionally,  a  mere  cast  of  some 
bivalve  shell  is  found  encrusted  all  over  with 
Flustradce,  and  then  the  cast  itself  is  entirely  com- 
posed of  small  Bryozoa,  so  '  felted '  together  that 
it  seems  like  one  fossil,  comprising  within  itself 
the  features  of  many  distinct  families.  Thus  a 
Pecten  will  abruptly  terminate  in  a  Retepora,  and 


Pecten.     Mt.  Gambler. 


Terebratula  eampta,          Cettepora    gam- 
Mt.  Gambler.  bierensis. 

Mt.  Gambler. 


this,  again,  will  pass  into  the  calcareous  axis  of  a 
Pennatula,  which  is  stopped  before  it  has  time  to 
display  its  fair  proportions  by  the  upper  valves  of 
a  Terebratula^  this  being  dovetailed  into  a  mass  of 
Celleporidce,  and  the  small  spires  of  the  Spatangus, 


FOSSILS    OF    THE    FORMATION. 


75 


which  everywhere  abound.  There  are  no  Nummu- 
lites,  or  any  signs  of  fossils  connected  in  any  way 
with  secondary  rocks. 


Spatangus  Forbesii.    Mount  Gambler. 

There  are,  however,  some  singular  fossils  found 
in  the  above  portion  of  the  district  that  are  worth 
mentioning. 

Some  rocks,  not  far  from  Penola,  are  entirely 
composed  of  a  small  shell  not  unlike  Nummidina, 
but  differing  in  many  respects :  they  are  being  con- 
sidered by  persons  more  competent  than  myself. 
This  is  the  only  part  of  the  district  where  they 
occur.  I  may  state  also,  that  two  Lunulites  were 
found — they  were  both  microscopic.  The  organic 
remains  are  not  all  equally  abundant  in  the  same 
strata ;  some  prevail  more  in  the  lower,  while  others 
are  more  common  in  the  upper  beds. 

In  a  place  near  Mount  Gambier,  where  the 
falling  in  of  a  subterranean  hollow  (probably 
eroded  by  water)  has  given  rise  to  a  deep  circu- 
lar pit,  about  100  feet  wide  and  90  deep,  a  com- 
plete section  of  the  strata  is  exposed  as  far  as  the 
depth  goes.  It  is  here  seen  that,  in  addition  to  a 
distinct  line  of  stratification,  dividing  the  rock  into 


76  FOSSILS    OF    THE   FORMATION. 

layers  about  fourteen  feet  thick,  there  are  regular 
zones  where  particular  fossils  are  associated.  Thus 
at  the  first  bed  (fourteen  feet),  little  is  seen  but 
Bryozoa  and  Terebratulce]  in  ten  feet  next,  less 
of  the  moss  corals,  and  more  pectens ;  the  next  is 
almost  exclusively  composed  of  a  pecten  common 
to  this  formation,  with  imbricated  stria3,  called 
Pecten  Coarctatus,  and  a  cellepore  coral  subse- 


Pecten  coarctatus  (?).  Cidaris. 

Mt.  Gambler.  Mt.  Gambier. 

quently  to  be  described.  This  state  of  things  is 
nearly  continued  to  the  bottom,  where  Echini  and 
Retepora3  combine  with  the  general  mass.  In  all 
the  strata,  the  shells,  &c.,  are  cemented  together. 
It  is  not  contended  that  this  arrangement  is  found 
throughout  the  district;  but  fossils  are  found  in 
much  the  same  way  at  the  Mosquito  Plains  caves 
(seventy  miles  distant),  where  a  fine  section  is 
exposed  to  view,  and  therefore  it  would  seem  that 
the  distribution  is  pretty  uniform.  A  Table  of  all 
the  fossils  hitherto  discovered  by  myself  is  here 
appended ;  but  it  must  be  remarked,  that  the  list  is 
far  from  being  intended  as  complete.  Very  likely 
it  is  but  an  infinitesimal  fragment  of  what  remains 
to  be  brought  to  light;  and  when  it  is  remembered 
that  all  our  knowledge  of  the  fauna  is  derived  from 
some  twenty  caves,  and  about  five  times  as  many 
wells  that  have  been  sunk  in  different  places,  who 


FOSSILS    OF    THE    FORMATION. 


77 


can  calculate  what  remains  yet  to  be  discovered? 
In  the  following  list  the  arrangement  adopted  by 
Professor  Phillips,  in  his  excellent  '  Manual  of 
Geology '  (Encyclopaedia  Metropolitana)  has  been 
adhered  to : — 

ORGANIC  REMAINS. 

PLANTS  .  •   ,  .  .  .    none. 

FORAMINIFERA. 
Many  genera,  families,  and  species,  some  probably  new. 

ZOOPHTTA. 


Isis 

Corals,  not  classified 


ECHINOIDEA. 


Cardiaster 
Oidaris  . 
Ecbinolampus    . 
Clypeaster 
Spatangus 
Echinus 


No.  of  Species. 
.      1 

7 


.     1 

.  2 
.  2 
.  1 
.  3 
1 


Cast  of  Trochus. 


Echinolampus.    Mt.  Gambier. 


78 


FOSSILS    OF    THE   FORMATION. 


Cast  of 
Conus. 


Cast  of 
Mitra. 


Cast  of  Turbo  (?). 


ASTEROIDEA. 


Astropecten 


No.  of  Species. 
1 


CIRRIPEDIA. 
Balanus.  .  . 

ENTOMOSTRACA. 
Many  species  observed  of  Cypris,  Cythera,  &c. 

BRYOZOA.* 

Salicornaria        .... 

Canda    .... 

Onchopora          ... 

Membranipora    .  .  .  , 

Lepralia  ... 

CeUepora  .  »  .  , 

Eschara  ...  »         .  ,»    . 

Retepora  .          '  ,  .  ',* 

*Psileschara         ...  .  . 

*  Cceleschara         .... 

Melicerita  ,  .  .  . 

Sertularia  .... 

Pustulipora        .  .  .  . 

Idmonea  ,  .  .        ... 

Hornera.  .  .  . 


2 
1 
1 
4 
4 
6 
8 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
2 
2 


and  numerous  others,  belonging  probably  to  entirely 
new  genera  ;  but,  as  these  fossils  are  the  prevailing 

*  Those  names  marked  with  an  asterisk  are  new  genera. 


FOSSILS  OF    THE   FORMATION. 


79 


ones  of  the  formation,  the  list  is  probably  inex- 
haustible. 


Terebratula 


BRACHIOFODA. 


No.  of  Species 

4 


MONOMYARIA. 


Lima 
Ostrea 
Pecten 
Pinna 


Area 
Astarte  . 
Cardium 
Pectunculus 
Panopsea 
Cyrena  . 
Venus    . 


DIMYAKIA. 


GASTEKOPODA. 


Ancillaria 
Buccinum 
Bulla      . 
Cerithium 
Conus     . 
Dentaliura 
Cyprtea . 
Fasciolaria 
Fissurella 
Fusus     . 
Hyponyx 
Littorina 
Melania . 
Mitra 
Murex    . 
Nerita    . 
Oliva      . 
Pyramidella 
Pyrula    . 
Trochus 
Turbo 


.  1 

.  1 

.  1 

.  1 

.  2 

.  1 

.  3 

.  1 

.  1 

.  1 

.  1 

.  1 

.  1 

.  1 

.  2 

.  1 

.  1 

.  1 

.  2 

many  species, 
many  species. 


80  FOSSILS    OF    THE    FORMATION. 

No.  of  Species 

Turritella  .  .  .  .        many  species. 

Voluta   .  .  •          ~.        many  species. 

CEPHALOPODA. 

Nautilus  .  .  .  .  .2 

PISCES. 

Many  teeth,  the  most  common  of  which  appear 
to  belong  to  a  species  of  Oxyrrhinus,  which  Prof. 


Teeth  of  Shark.     Ox^rrMnus  Woodsii. 
(M'Coy,  M.S.)    Mt.  Gambler. 

These  are  natural  size,  but  many  are  found  four  times  larger. 

M'Coy  has  called  Oxyrrhinus  Woodsii.  Some  of 
them  seem  to  be  those  of  a  Lamna.  No  fish-bones 
were  found. 

AveSj  Mammalia,  Marsupialia,  Insectivora,  Chei- 
roptera, and  Quadrumana,  have  none  of  them,  if 
existing  in  this  district  when  the  beds  were 
deposited,  left  any  traces  that  have  yet  come  to 
light.  Of  Cetacea,  some  bones  have  been  found  at 
various  times,  but  have  never  been  examined  by 
the  author.  The  Murray  banks  seem  to  be  the 
commonest  locality  for  these  remains.  With  re- 
gard to  Marsupialia,  although  instances  will  be 
hereafter  given  of  such  bones  being  discovered, 
they  have  never  been  deposited  in  the  limestone 


FOSSILS    OF    THE   FORMATION.  81 

and  associated  with  marine  remains.  The  instances 
alluded  to  are  generally  in  connection  with  caves. 
In  addition  to  the  list  just  given,  fossils  were 
found  which  would  not  properly  come  under  any 
of  the  above  headings  ;  such,  for  instance,  as  ex- 
tensive beds  of  spines  of  Echinidce,  amongst  which 
the  spines  of  a  Cidaris  are  so  large  and  highly 
tuberculated  as  to  seem  like  distinct  shells,  while 
the  form  of  others  is  so  peculiar  as  to  earn  for 
them  the  ludicrous  title  of  '  fossil  cribbage-pegs,' 
which,  indeed,  they  are  not  unlike. 


Spine  of  Cidaris.    Mount  Gambler, 

Some  remains  of  crabs'  claws,  which  are  not 
unfrequently  met  with,  have  not  been  included  in 
the  above  list,  simply  because  they  were  so  imper- 
fect as  to  render  any  classification  very  difficult  and 
uncertain.  Long  strips  of  hardened  lime,  which 
probably  belonged  to  the  calcareous  ages  of  Penna- 
tulidce,  are  also  common.  Some  fragments  of  sea- 
weed were  said  to  have  been  found  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  district,  but  the  specimens  were  lost,  and 
their  true  nature  is  consequently  very  doubtful. 

In  nearly  every  case,  the  lime  in  the  shelly  por- 
tions of  the  fossils  is  crystallised,  and  fractures 
always  in  the  crystalline  form,  leaving  a  smooth 
even  edge.  The  lime  inside  is  never  crystallised. 
This  phenomenon,  which  is  common  to  many  for- 
mations in  Europe,  is  worthy  of  more  consideration 

G 


82  FOSSILS    OF    THE    BEDS. 

than  it  has  received.  Can  it  be  that  the  decompo- 
sition in  the  animal  matter  in  the  shell  causes  a 
chemical  arrangement  of  the  other  particles  con- 
nected with  it,  by  a  sort  of  predisposing  affinity  ? 
Instances  like  this  are  not  uncommon  in  chemistry. 
Before  comparing  this  list  with  the  fauna  of 
other  parts  of  this  and  the  neighbouring  colony, 
where  fossils  are  found,  let  us  stop  to  examine  the 
nature  of  the  evidence  they  furnish.  In  the  first 
place,  the  beds  are  tertiary.  This  is  seen  from  the 
fact  that  some  of  the  fossils  are  of  existing  species, 
and  from  the  general  resemblance  of  the  fauna  to 
what  is  now  found  on  the  coast.  Secondly,  the 
formations  are  most  probably  of  the  Lower  Crag 
or  Middle  Crag;  but  this  will  require  some  little 
explanation.  Most  readers  are  probably  aware  that 
the  tertiary  or  newest  fossiliferous  rocks  have  been 
divided  into  three  great  periods.  The  Pleiocene  is 
most  recent  in  the  species  of  shells  it  possesses ;  the 
Meiocene  is  less  recent ;  and  the  Eocene,  or  dawn  of 
the  recent,  the  earliest.  The  grounds  of  this  division 
are  found,  as  the  names  imply,  in  a  greater  or  less 
predominance  of  existing  forms,  among  the  fossils 
enclosed.  In  the  beds  now  under  consideration,  there 
can  be  no  question  that  a  number  of  the  shells  still 
exist  on  the  coast,  but  not  by  any  means  in  propor- 
tion to  the  past ;  Pleiocene  is  sometimes  found  above 
them,  in  which  extinct  species  are  rare.  On  compar- 
ing the  fauna  in  the  few  instances  where  any  likeness 
exists  with  shells  found  in  Europe,  they  are  found 
to  be  most  commonly  similar  to  Lower  Meiocene  and 


FOSSILS    OF    THE    BEDS. 


83 


Upper  Eocene  fossils.     Thus,  the  Nautilus  ziczac 
is  found  in  Upper  Eocene  at  home,  but  sometimes 


Nautilus  ziczac.     Mount  Gambier. 


goes  as  low  as  the  London  Clay,  in  which  are  also 
found  the  Astro-Pecten,  the  Spatangus  Forbesii,  and 


Spatangus  Forbesii. 
Mount  Gambier. 


Cast  of          Murcx  asper.    Lam. 
Turritella  Mount  Gambier. 

terebralis. 
Mount  Gambier. 


the  Cyprcea  oviformis,  common  to  this  formation. 
The  most  predominant  shell  found  at  Mount  Gam- 
bier is  the  Nautilus  ziczac,  and  on  the  Murray 
the  commonest  shell  is  the  Turritella  terebralis, 
common  in  the  Meiocene  beds,  Bordeaux.  Of 
course,  in  dealing  with  any  tertiary  rocks,  it  is  dif- 


G   2 


84  FOSSILS    OF    THE   FORMATION. 

ficult  to  say  what  shells  have  become  extinct,  and 
what  may  yet  be  found  in  future  exploration,  so 
that  those  which  are  common  in  the  Eocene  beds 
might  just  possibly  be  found  in  Pleiocene  beds, 
and  thus  deposits  so  widely  separated  be  found 
similar  in  some  respects.  As  an  instance,  it  may 
be  mentioned  that  the  Murex  asper,  Lamark 
(Upper  Eocene,  Barton  clay,  Hants),  has  been  found 
by  myself,  at  least,  as  a  common  shell  on  some 
parts  of  the  Australian  coast.  Now,  Prof.  Rupert 
Jones  informs  me  that  the  microscopic  fossils  are 
not  indicative  of  anything  more  ancient  than 
Pleiocene.  If  this  be  the  case,  we  must  regard  the 
occurrence  of  the  fossils  enumerated  above  as  con- 
tinuations of  animal  life  here,  which  were  extinct 
elsewhere.  Some  deductions  will  hereafter  be 
made  from  the  general  nature  of  the  strata,  and 
the  occurrence  of  Eocene  fossils  in  Pleiocene  rocks, 
while  some,  even  from  a  portion  of  our  present 
fauna,  are  singularly  corroborative  of  the  view 
taken.  But  this  is  anticipating. 

The  following  report  of  Dr.  Busk  on  some  fossils 
of  the  formation  seen  by  him,  will  show  how  far  the 
position  of  the  beds  has  been  determined  as  yet : — 

'  The  Polyzoa  included  in  this  collection  belong 
to  fifteen  or  sixteen  genera,  of  which  four  are  pro- 
bably new;  and  the  number  of  species  is  about 
thirty-nine  or  forty,  of  which  at  least  thirty-six 
seem  to  be  undescribed.  Among  them  are  several 
very  peculiar  and  characteristic  forms,  especially 
in  the  genus  Cellepora.  Taken  as  a  whole,  these 
fossil  forms  exhibit  such  genuine  and  specific  types 


AGE    OF    THE   BEDS.  85 

as  to  render  it  probable  that  the  formation  in  which 
they  are  found  corresponds,  in  point  of  relation,  to 
the  existing  state  of  things  with  the  lower  crag  of 
England,  although  the  collection  contains  only  one 
or  two  species,  and  that  even  doubtfully,  to  any 
belonging  to  the  crag. 

'  It  is  remarkable,  however,  that  it  presents  a 
second  species  of  Melicerita,  which  genus  is  peculiar 
to  that  deposit.  Of  the  characteristic  Fascicularice 
and  other  Theonidce  of  the  crag,  no  trace  exists  in 
the  present  collection.  The  most  remarkable  form 


Ccttepora  gambicrensis.     Busk. 
Mount  Gambier. 


is  a  large  and  massive  Cellepora,  for  which  I  pro- 
pose the  name  Cellepora  gambierensis.1 

It  appears  to  me  almost  certain  that  eventually 
future  investigations  will  identify  these  deposits 


86  AGE    OF    THE   BEDS. 

with  the  Crag,  and  therefore  it  will  be  as  well  here 
to  mention  the  features  of  that  deposit  at  home. 

The  word  '  crag'  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from 
an  ancient  British  word,  meaning  rock,  and  the 
term  is  therefore  a  provincial  one.  The  beds  are 
best  known  by  those  in  Suffolk,  where  they  are 
divided  into  the  upper  and  lower  crag.  The  upper 
is  a  loose  shelly  deposit,  seeming  like  a  shifting 
sandbank,  whose  description  is  exactly  similar  to 
a  deposit  to  be  noticed  by  and  by,  which  imme- 
diately overlies  a  portion  of  the  Mount  Gambier 
limestone;  the  lower  is  a  soft  coralline  limestone, 
precisely  similar  to  what  I  have  described  as  the 
rock  at  Mount  Gambier.  I  believe  this  deposit  and 
the  chalk  have  always  been  regarded  as  the  two 
which  are  richest  in  Bryozoa,  and  wherever  it 
occurs  it  has  merited  the  name  of  coralline  lime- 
stone, from  its  peculiar  richness  in  those  remains. 
It  has  been  remarked,  also,  that  these  remains  in- 
dicate a  peculiar  state  of  the  sea  at  the  time,  which 
is  not  accounted  for  by  anything  we  observe  at 
present  going  on  about  us.  When  this  is  remem- 
bered in  connection  with  the  peculiar  origin  of  the 
beds  of  which  I  am  now  about  to  treat,  it  will 
be  admitted  that  there  is  a  similarity,  even  if  no 
shells  were  there  —  that  is,  noshells  common  to 
both. 

The  crag  deposits  have  been  traced  at  home,  to 
Antwerp,  Normandy,  the  Apennines,  and  to  many 
parts  of  Italy,  not  even  excepting  Rome.  When 
these  beds  are  proved  to  be  identical,  as  doubtless 
they  will  shortly  be,  by  the  discovery  of  many 


AGE    OF   THE   BEDS.  87 

similar  fossils,  it  will  be  established  that  the  sea 
which  formed  the  strata  upon  which  Mount  Gam- 
bier,  and  even  Adelaide,  stand,  was  also  rolling 
over  the  site  of  Rome — not  ancient  Rome,  but 
Rome  then  unborn.  When  we  look  back  on  the 
history  of  that  country,  and  think  of  the  period 
before  its  upheaval  from  the  sea,  we  can  guess  how 
modern  these  beds  of  Mount  Gambier  are.  That 
the  sea  covered  both  simultaneously  does  not  admit 
of  much  doubt. 

I  am  almost  ashamed  to  quote  so  largely  in  a 
small  work  like  the  present,  but,  as  illustrative  of 
what  I  have  been  describing,  I  cannot  help  trans- 
cribing from  Sir  Charles  Lyell's  invaluable  manual 
the  passage  referring  to  the  Pleiocene  strata  of 
Rome : — 

'  The  seven  hills  of  Rome  are  composed  partly 
of  marine  tertiary  strata;  those  of  Monte  Mario, 
for  example,  of  the  older  Pleiocene  period,  and 
partly  of  superimposed  volcanic  tuff,  on  the  top  of 
which  are  usually  cappings  of  a  fluviatile  and 
lacustrine  deposit.  Thus  on  Mount  Aventine,  the 
Vatican,  and  the  Capitol,  we  find  beds  of  calca- 
reous tufa,  with  incrusted  reeds  and  recent  terres- 
trial shells,  at  the  height  of  about  200  feet  above 
the  alluvial  plain  of  the  Tiber.  The  tusk  of  the 
mammoth  has  been  procured  from  this  formation, 
but  the  shells  appear  to  be  all  of  living  species,  and 
must  have  been  embedded  when  the  summit  of  the 
Capitol  was  a  marsh,  and  constituted  one  of  the 
lowest  hollows  of  the  country  as  it  then  existed. 
It  is  not  without  interest  that  we  thus  discover  the 


88  AGE    OF    THE    BEDS. 

extremely  recent  date  of  a  geological  event  which 
preceded  an  historical  era  so  remote  as  the  building 
of  Rome.'* 

The  deposit  is  further  traced  into  Asia  Minor 
and  on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  It  is  cer- 
tainly very  interesting  to  find  in  what  manner 
Australia  is  geologically  connected  with  the  older 
hemisphere,  and  especially  to  find  that  we  are  re- 
lated by  very  close  ties  of  time  with  such  distin- 
guished ancients  as  Rome  and  Asia  Minor.  There  is 
one  important  difficulty  in  tracing  the  resemblance, 
which  has  yet,  in  great  part,  to  be  overcome.  Pro- 
bably not  a  dozen  fossils  will  be  found  common 
to  both  formations ;  but,  inasmuch  as  the  fauna  of 
our  present  seas  differ  almost  totally  from  those  of 
Europe,  so  we  must  expect  a  similar  divergence 
for  the  time  when  the  crag  was  deposited.  The 
problem  to  be  solved  will  therefore  stand  thus: 
Knowing  the  present  analogies  between  the  Aus- 
tralian and  European  seas,  what  might  we  antici- 
pate from  the  Australian  crag,  knowing  the  fauna 
of  that  of  Europe  ? 

It  might  be  further  remarked,  that  the  discovery 
of  extensive  beds  of  coralline,  all  belonging  to  one 
period,  might  enable  us  to  establish  an  epoch  of 
Bryozoa,  just  as  there  is  an  epoch  of  carbonaceous 
flora,  an  epoch  of  gigantic  reptiles,  or  an  anomalous 
period  like  the  chalk,  which  seem,  each  in  their  turn, 
to  have  stamped  a  character  on  every  part  of  the 
world  during  their  continuance. 

*  Lyell's  Manual  of  Geology,  5th  ed.,  p.  176. 


AGE    OF    THE    BEDS.  89 

From  the  general  appearance  of  the  strata,  it 
may  be  concluded  that  they  were  deposited  in  a  - 
deep  tranquil  sea ;  that  the  debris  of  which  they 
were  composed  was  derived  from  a  series  of  coral- 
line reefs,  which  either  at  present  form  a  part  of 
them,  or  somewhere  in  their  vicinity ;  and,  thirdly, 
that  the  climate  was  somewhat  warmer  than  that 
which  obtains  at  the  present  time  in  the  same  area. 
The  inference  with  regard  to  the  depth  of  the  sea 
has  been  drawn  from  the  nature  of  the  fossils,  which 
are  generally  indicative  of  considerable  depths.  At 
least,  it  will  be  proved  just  now  that  the  animals  did 
not  exist  where  their  fossil  remains  are  now  found. 
Then  there  are  no  river  or  land  shells,  or  bones  of 
mammalia,  or  trees,  or  wood,  such  as  we  might 
expect  if  land  were  near.  Very  few  of  the  Zoophytes 
belonging  to  the  fossils  appear  to  have  lived  and 
died  in  the  places  where  their  remains  are  found. 
It  would  appear  as  if  they  had  been  brought  from 
a  distance,  and  that  the  carriage  has  been  effected 
not  so  much  by  the  force  of  a  current  a's  by  the 
gradual  spreading  out  upon  the  bottom  of  the 
ocean,  either  by  the  force  of  gravity,  or  the  pres- 
sure of  detritus  from  the  shallower  sea.  It  is  true 
that,  as  will  be  hereafter  shown,  corallines  (very 
similar  to  corals)  are  sometimes  found  in  the  posi- 
tion in  which  they  have  grown,  proving  the  com- 
parative shallowness  of  the  sea,  which  was  per- 
haps not  more  than  thirty  fathoms,  which  is  the 
greatest  depth  at  which  live  corals  have  been  found. 
Yet  such  instances  are  not  common,  and  it  is  very 


90  PKOBABLE    MANNER   OF    DEPOSITION. 

probable  that  the  detritus  from  these  and  similar 
places  have  given  rise  to  the  marine  exuviae  now 
embedded  in  the  stone.  In  such  places,  again,  the 
shells  are  nearly  always  preserved,  are  more  nu- 
merous, and  the  beds  contain  less  of  that  limestone 
which  unite  the  other  rocks ;  while  elsewhere  the 
shells  are  fewer,  more  broken,  and  oftener  only 
casts  remain. 

The  regularity  of  the  strata,  and  the  dim  traces 
of  stratification,  point  to  a  very  tranquil  sea,  which, 
of  course,  could  only  be  obtained  at  some  depth ; 
and  where  portions  of  shells  are  found,  or  pieces  of 
fish-bone,  teeth,  &c.,  the  remaining  fragments  are 
seldom  discovered  in  the  immediate  vicinity,  thus 
proving  a  transit  from  the  original  place  of  depo- 
sition which  has  separated  the  remains  tranquilly 
and  without  much  breakage.  If  I  were  asked  to 
indicate  localities  which  would  be  good  types  of 
where  the  process  of  slow  shifting  has. taken  place, 
I  should  point  out  the  rock  about  Mount  Gambier, 
where,  of  all  the  fossils  found,  not  one  animal  ap- 
pears to  have  died  in  the  place  where  the  remains 
are  now  found.  The  coral  before  alluded  to  is  very 
common  here,  but  always  broken,  and  appearing  to 
have  come  from  a  distance.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  only  place  I  am  as  yet  acquainted  with  where 
the  fossils  do  not  appear  to  have  been  transported 
any  distance,  is  at  the  cliffs  in  the  caves  at  Mos- 
quito Plains. 

The  mention  of  these  brings  me  to  the  proof  of 
the  third  statement,  namely,  that  the  whole  of  the 


CORALLINE    REEFS.  91 

formation  is  derived  from  a  series  of  coralline  reefs, 
perhaps  now  forming  part  of  the  beds.  In  the 
first  place,  the  most  common  fossil  in  the  whole 
formation,  whether  at  the  extreme  south  or  far 
north  of  the  district,  is  the  Cellepora  gambierenssi, 


Branching  Axis  of  Cellepora  gambierensis. 
Mount  Gambler. 

before  mentioned.  It  is  found  at  all  depths  and 
in  every  place  where  the  beds  occur,  at  Mount 
Gambier,  in  the  caves  at  Mosquito  Plains,  at  the 
edge  of  the  Mallee  Scrub,  and  in  the  Murray 
Cliffs.  Most  frequently  it  is  in  small  pieces,  but 
occasionally  large  and  branched.  Often  it  is  so 
worn  and  broken  as  to  be  barely  traceable  in 
the  limestone  cement,  and  I  have  noticed  it  even 
in  the  centre  of  flints.  At  the  caves,  Mosquito 
Plains,  it  appears  as  if  it  had  grown  where  it  is 
seen  in  the  walls.  It  is  very  large  and  much 
ramified;  not,  certainly,  possessing  the  beauty  of 
the  delicate  Mceandrina  (brain  coral),  or  the  leaf- 
like  expansion  of  the  Pavonia,  but,  nevertheless, 
having  a  natural  beauty  of  its  own,  all  the  better 
for  a  close  examination,  where  evidence  is  obtained 


92  CORALLINE    IlEEFS. 

of  the  minute  kind  of  molluscous  animal  which 
inhabited  it.  This  is  the  only  coralline  which 
seems  to  affect  the  large  massive  branches  of 
the  true  corals,  forming  a  connecting  link  with 
that  order.  It  is  made  up  of  closely-packed  con- 
geries of  minute  cells,  which  opened  outward, 
in  pores,  as  seen  in  the  engraving  in  this  chapter, 
where  a  magnified  portion  of  the  surface  is  given. 
The  cells  seem  to  have  grown  from  within  out- 
wards, and  the  inside  of  the  branches  is  hollow. 
A  section  is  much  like  very  fine  yellow  sponge. 
It  might  easily  have  formed  a  reef. 

Besides  the  actual  presence  of  the  coralline  to 
point  out  the  origin  of  the  strata,  their  very 
texture,  if  the  term  be  admissible,  proves  the  nature 
of  the  process  which  formed  them,  which  appears 
from  the  following  observations. 

Lieutenant  Nelson*  states  that  the  mud  de- 
rived from  coral  reefs  differs  not,  when  dried, 
from  the  ordinary  white  chalk  of  Europe,  and  '  this 
mud  is  carried  to  great  distances  by  currents, 
and  spread  far  and  wide  over  the  floor  of  the 
ocean.' 

It  seems  quite  natural  to  suppose  that  this  would 
be  the  case,  from  the  heavy  beating  of  the  open 
sea  upon  coral  reefs.  This  not  only  breaks  up  the 
coral,  but  carries  it  far  away,  in  the  form  of  white 
mud,  with  small  fragments  of  coralline  shells,  &c., 
interspersed.  In  the  lagoons  found  in  the  centre 
of  Atolls,  or  Ring  Islands,  such  as  abound  in  the 

*   Quarterly  Journal  of  Geological  Society,  1853,  p.  200. 


CORALLINE    KEEFS.  93 

Pacific,  the  same  description  of  white  mud  is  met 
with ;  that  of  Keeling  Island  is  thus  described  by 
Mr.  Darwin :  *— 

'The  sediment  from  the  deepest  parts  of  the 
lagoon,  when  wet,  appears  chalky,  but,  when  dry,  like 
very  fine  sand.  Large  soft  banks  of  similar  but 
even  finer-grained  mud  occur  on  the  SE.  shore  of 
the  lagoon,  affording  a  thick  growth  of  a  Fucus, 
on  which  turtle  feed.  This  mud,  although  disco- 
loured by  vegetable  matter,  appears,  from  its  entire 
solution  in  acids,  to  be  purely  calcareous.  I  have 
seen  in  the  Museum  of  the  Geological  Society  a 
similar  but  more  remarkable  substance  brought 
by  Lieutenant  Nelson  from  the  reefs  of  Bermuda, 
which,  when  shown  to  several  experienced  geolo- 
gists, was  mistaken  by  them  for  true  chalk.  On 
the  outside  of  the  reef  much  sediment  must  be 
formed  by  the  action  of  the  surf  on  the  rolled  frag- 
ments of  coral,  but  in  the  calm  waters  of  the 
lagoon  this  can  take  place  only  in  a  small  degree. 
There  are,  however,  other  and  unexpected  agents 
at  work  here :  large  shoals  of  two  species  of  Icarus, 
one  inhabiting  the  surf  outside  the  reef,  and  the 
other  the  lagoon,  subsist  entirely,  as  I  was  assured 
by  Mr.  Liesk,  the  intelligent  resident  before  re- 
ferred to,  by  browsing  the  living  polypifers.  I 
opened  several  of  these  fish,  which  are  very  nume- 

*  I  cannot  let  this  opportunity  pass  without  expressing  my  great 
obligations  to  Mr.  Darwin's  valuable  work  on  coral  reefs.  Its  merits 
cannot  be  too  highly  estimated,  and  to  any  one  studying  the  geology 
of  such  deposits  as  those  of  Mount  Gambier,  it  is  an  indispensable 
text-book. 


94  CORALLINE    EEEFS. 

rous  and  of  considerable  size,  and  I  found  their 
intestines  distended  by  small  pieces  of  coral  and 
finely-ground  calcareous  matter.  This  must  daily 
pass  from  them  as  the  finest  sediment ;  much  also 
must  be  produced  by  the  infinitely  numerous  ver- 
miform and  molluscous  animals  which  make  cavities 
in  almost  every  block  of  coral.' 

As  we  are  upon  this  subject,  it  is  hoped  it  will 
not  be  deemed  tedious  to  insert,  for  the  information 
of  those  unacquainted  with  coral  reefs,  a  description 
of  one,  a  proper  notion  of  them  being  indispen- 
sable to  a  comprehension  of  this  chapter. 

The  following  is  taken  from  the  voyage  of  H.M.S. 
Fly  to  the  Eastern  Archipelago.*  A  coral  reef  is 
thus  described : — 

'  A  submarine  mound  of  rock,  composed  of  the 
fragments  and  detritus  of  corals  and  shells  com- 
pacted together  into  a  soft  spongy  stone.  —  The 
greater  part  of  the  surface  of  this  mound  is  quite 
flat,  and  near  the  level  of  low  water.  At  its  edges  it 
is  commonly  a  little  rounded  off,  or  slopes  gradu- 
ally down  to  a  depth  of  two,  three,  and  four  fathoms, 
and  then  pitches  suddenly  down,  with  a  very  rapid 
slope,  into  deep  water  20  or  200  fathoms,  as  the  case 
may  be.  The  surface  of  this  reef,  when  exposed,  looks 
like  a  great  flat  of  sandstone  with  a  few  loose  slabs 
lying  about,  or  here  and  there  an  accumulation  of 
dead  broken  coral  branches,  or  a  bank  of  dazzling 
white  sand.  It  is,  however,  chequered  with  holes 
and  hollows  more  or  less  deep,  in  which  small 

*  London  :  Boone,  1847. 


DESCRIPTION    OF    COKAL   BEEFS.  95 

living  corals  are  growing,  or  has,  perhaps,  a  large 
portion  that  is  always  covered  by  two  or  three  feet 
of  water  at  the  lowest  tides,  and  here  are  fields  of 
corals,  either  clumps  of  branching  Madrepores,  or 
round  stools  and  blocks  of  Mceandrina  and  Astrcea, 
both  dead  and  living.  Proceeding  from  this  central 
flat  towards  the  edge,  living  corals  become  more 
and  more  abundant. 

'  As  we  get  towards  the  windward  side,  we  of 
course  encounter  the  surf  of  breakers  long  before 
we  can  reach  the  extreme  verge  of  the  reef,  and 
among  these  breakers  we  see  immense  blocks,  often 
two  or  three  yards  (and  sometimes  much  more)  in 
diameter,  lying  loose  upon  the  reef.  These  are 
sometimes  within  reach  by  a  little  wading,  and 
though,  in  some  instances,  they  are  found  to  consist 
of  several  kinds  of  corals  matted  together,  they  are 
more  often  found  to  be  large  individual  masses  of 
species  which  are  either  not  found  elsewhere,  and, 
consequently,  never  seen  alive,  or  which  greatly 
surpass  their  brethren  on  other  parts  of  the  reef  in 
size  and  importance.  If  we  approach  the  lee  edge 
of  the  reef,  either  by  walking  or  in  a  boat,  we  find 
it  covered  with  living  corals,  commonly  Mceandrina, 
Astrcea,  and  Madrepora,  in  about  equal  abun- 
dance, all  glowing  with  rich  colours,  bristling  with 
branches,  or  studded  with  great  knobs  and  blocks. 

4  When  the  edge  of  the  reef  is  very  steep,  it  has 
sometimes  overhanging  ledges,  and  is  generally 
indented  by  narrow  winding  channels  and  deep 
holes  leading  into  dark  hollows  and  cavities,  where 


96  DESCRIPTION   OF   COEAL   REEFS. 

nothing  can  be  seen.  When  the  slope  is  more 
gentle,  the  great  groups  of  living  corals  and  inter- 
vening spaces  of  white  sand  can  be  still  discerned 
through  the  clear  water  to  a  depth  of  forty  or  fifty 
feet,  beyond  which  the  water  recovers  its  usual  deep 
blue.  A  coral  reef,  therefore,  is  a  mass  of  brute 
matter,  living  only  at  its  outer  surface,  and  chiefly 
on  its  lateral  slopes.' 

This  description  must  be  varied  for  the  majority 
of  atolls.  The  outer  edge  is  a  bank  of  calcareous 
sand,  raised  a  few  feet  above  the  highest  tides.  This 
is  sometimes  covered  with  a  few  shrubs  and  palm 
trees.  Inside  the  bank  of  sand  which  forms  a  ring 
there  is  a  lagoon,  the  bottom  of  which  is  covered 
with  a  chalky  mud  just  spoken  of.  It  has  been  very 
nearly  proved  that  the  chalk  of  England  and  France 
owes  its  origin  to  a  somewhat  similar  process ;  and 
from  the  similarity  of  the  strata  in  both  cases  (for 
really  the  cliffs  at  Mount  Gambier  can  scarcely  be 
more  like  the  chalk  cliffs),  all  the  arguments  which 
tend  to  support  such  a  view  will  serve  equally  well 
here. 

They  principally  rest  on  the  fact,  that,  where 
coral  reefs  are  at  present  in  existence,  a  deposit 
analogous  to  the  chalk  is  in  course  of  formation, 
and  that  where  chalk  beds  are  found  it  is  always 
associated  with  such  fossils  and  exuviae  as  might  be 
looked  for  from  a  coral  reef. 

Let  it  be  remarked,  that  the  quantity  of  true 
corals  which  have  been  found  in  the  Mount  Gambier 
strata  is  admitted  to  be  comparatively  small,  yet  the 


SIMILAEITY    OF   LIMESTONE    TO    CORAL   ROCK.       97 

same  thing  might  be  urged  against  the  chalk  at 
home. 

There,  as  here,  the  Bryozoa  are  in  excess,  and 
probably  there,  as  here,  the  latter  formed  the  reefs. 
Such  a  thing  is  never  observed  now,  but  I  am  con- 
fident it  must  have  been  the  case  here  in  the 
geological  period  to  which  they  belong.  As  just 
related,  there  is  a  fine  section  of  the  beds  at  the 
caves  at  Mosquito  Plains. 

There  is  little  else  in  that  place  but  the  Celle- 
pora  gambierensis,  common  to  the  formation.  It 
stands  exactly  as  it  grew,  large  branches  dividing 
again  and  again,  as  they  ascend,  until  at  the  top  of 
the  cave  their  arborescent  ramifications  are  spread 
out  like  a  shrubbery  turned  to  stone.  Now,  al- 
though the  Cellepora  is  not  a  true  coral,  it  might 
easily  form  part  of  a  reef  when  growing  as  related, 
and  there  cannot  be  much  doubt  that  this  particular 
instance  was  in  actual  connection  with  one.  It  may 
therefore  be  enumerated,  that  there  may  be  reefs 
of  '  moss  coral,'  Bryozoa,  as  well  as  of  true  coral, 
and  the  Mount  Gambier  deposit  was  derived,  pro- 
bably, from  the  former. 

What  other  fauna  may  we  expect  besides  corals 
and  moss  corals  in  a  reef  ?  If  we  consult  the  works 
of  those  who  have  made  such  places  their  study, 
we  shall  find  that  Pectens,  Ostrece,  Conidce,  Cy- 
pridce,  Sharks,  Echini,  and  Bryozoa  generally,  are 
everywhere  associated  with  reefs.  For  the&e  facts, 
see  Darwin,  Beechy,  Chamisso,  Moresby  and 
Jukes,  passim.  Readers  now  have  only  to  refer 

H 


98  CORALLINE    REEFS. 

back  to  the  part  of  this  chapter  which  mentions 
the  fossils  of  the  beds,  and  they  will  at  once  see  the 
correspondence  with  the  faunas  of  a  coral  reef.  It 
may,  then,  be  stated,  without  taking  anything  for 
granted,  that  the  deposit  in  question  has  arisen 
from  a  reef,  or  series  of  reefs,  now,  perhaps,  en- 
tombed in  the  general  debris,  perhaps  in  some  parts 
of  the  strata  not  yet  known. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  postpone  any  enquiries  as 
to  the  nature  of  the  reef — whether  a  barrier  or  a 
series  of  atolls,  or  what  other  kind  or  kinds  of  reefs. 
The  marked  boundaries  of  the  formation  have  been 
described,  at  least,  as  far  as  they  are  at  present 
known.  In  the  mean  time,  we  may  pass  to  the  con- 
sideration of  another  fact,  before  spoken  of,  namely, 
that  the  organic  remains  indicate  a  much  warmer 
climate  than  that  which  obtains  at  present.  Some 
little  explanation  may  be  further  necessary  as  to 
the  natural  history  of  the  builders  of  the  reefs,  to 
prevent  any  misconception  of  what  is  meant  to  be 
conveyed  by  the  term  '  coral.' 

It  is  well  known  that  true  coral  reefs  at  present 
do  not  extend  much  beyond  the  tropics,  either  in 
a  northerly  or  southerly  direction,  except  at  the 
Bermudas,  where  local  circumstances  of  tempera- 
ture (the  Gulf  Stream)  account  for  the  exception. 
It  is  not  pretended,  even  now,  that  there  was  any 
variation  from  the  law  during  the  crag  period.  A 
coral  reef,  properly  speaking,  is  a  mass  of  calcareous 
polypodoms,  formed  by  living  polypi.  Such  a  defi- 
nition would  exclude  our  reef,  at  least  as  far  as  the 


EVIDENCE    OF   FORMER   HIGHER    TEMPERATURE.     99 

fossils  are  known,  because  the  animal  which  raised 
the  barrier  was  of  a  much  higher  organisation  than 
a  polypus  or  real  coral  animal,  and  such  an  one  as 
is  even  now  found  outside  the  tropics.  It  is  a 
molluscous  animal,  which  is  most  common  in  our 
beds,  belonging  to  the  sub-kingdom  Nematoneura, 
and  associated  with  such  divisions  as  Ecliinoder- 
mata,  such  as  star-fish,  &c.,  whereas  the  true  corals 
belong  to  the  sub-kingdom  Acrita,  and  are  associated 
with  the  Porifera  or  sponges,  the  Acalephce  or  jelly- 
fish, &c.  The  higher  developement  of  the  Bryozoa 
might,  perhaps,  enable  them  to  withstand  a  colder 
temperature.  At  any  rate,  this  is  not  the  only  in- 
stance of  fossils  indicating  something  analogous  to 
a  coral  reef  being  found  outside  the  tropics.  The 
chalk  formation  extends  beyond  the  55th  parallel  of 
north  latitude,  while,  in  the  case  under  considera- 
tion, it  does  not  certainly  extend  beyond  42°  south. 
I  do  not  believe,  however,  that  the  same  animal  would 
exist  now,  even  at  the  latitude  of  Mount  Gambier* 
(about  37°  30'  south),  and,  therefore,  a  warmer 
temperature  must  be  supposed  than  that  which  is 
consistent  with  the  present  physical  geography  of 
Australia.  This  is  borne  out  by  the  fauna.  Conidce, 
Cypridce,  and  Nautilidce  are  not  found  now  of  the 
same  size  upon  the  coast,  except  much  nearer  to 
the  tropics. 

And  now  we  come  to  the  important  question, 
How  far  does  the  formation  extend?     It  may  be 

*  My  reasons  for  tliis  belief  are  taken  from  the  present  fauna  of  that 
part  of  the  coast. 

H  2 


100  EXTENT    OF    THE    FORMATION. 

necessary  to  go  somewhat  extremely  into  detail  for 
a  proof  of  what  is  certainly  a  very  extraordinary 
fact,  probably  not  a  solitary  one,  in  the  geological 
history  of  the  tertiary  formation,  and  although  this 
work  only  professes  to  record  geological  observa- 
tions in  South  Australia,  yet,  in  this  instance,  it 
will  be  led  somewhat  beyond  these  limits. 

It  may  be  premised  that  a  large  area,  covered 
by  one  formation,  is  by  no  means  new  in  geology. 
When  it  is  stated  that  probably  one-sixth  of  Aus- 
tralia is  covered  by  the  one  now  described,  its  ex- 
tent may  surprise  us.  The  chalk  formation  of 
Europe  has,  ^however,  been  traced  1,140  geographi- 
cal miles  in  one  direction,  and  840  miles  in  another. 
The  one  we  are  now  occupied  with  is  not  so  large  as 
this,  though  it  is  of  great  size ;  but,  as  many  of  the 
facts  in  support  of  this  view  do  not  amount  to 
decisive  evidence,  their  separate  value  must  be 
shown  as  we  proceed  step  by  step ; —  this  will  be  the 
subject  of  the  next  chapter.  Before  passing  to 
it,  let  us  consider  for  one  moment  the  magnitude 
of  the  operations  we  have  just  cursorily  surveyed. 
The  sight  of  an  atoll  standing  alone  amid  the  sur- 
gings  of  a  vast  ocean,  with  no  other  guarantee 
against  being  swept  away  by  some  great  billow  than 
the  protection  of  the  tiny  world  which  raised  the 
structure,  may  well  surprise  us  ;  but  here  the 
labours  of  a  similar  creature  are  as  marvellous. 
An  immense  territory,  much  larger  than  Great 
Britain,  owes  its  soil,  its  foundation,  and  hereafter 
will  owe  its  edifices  and  monuments,  to  fragile 


EXTENT    OF    THE    FOEMATION. 


101 


corallines,  of  which  we  tread  a  million  under  our 
feet  in  our  sea-side  rambles,  and  whose  only  appeal 
against  destruction  is  being  so  very  small  and  yet 
so  very  beautiful.  They  raised  a  structure  which 
withstood  the  waves,  and  now — 

'  Pulvere  vix  tectee  poterunt  monstrare  ruinse.' — LUCAN. 

It  seems  as  though  the  order  of  nature  were  re- 
versed, and  that  weakness  had  power  to  com- 
plete what  strength  had  never  power  to  attempt ; 
that  while  the  monuments  of  giants  perish,  the 
gigantic  monuments  raised  by  atoms  remain  for 
ever.  Well  may  we  here  quote  the  beautiful  lines 
from  Montgomery's  '  Pelican  Island :' — 


( I  saw  the  living  pile  ascend, 
The  mausoleum  of  its  architects  : 
Still  sloping  upwards  as  their  labours  closed — 
Slime  the  materials,  but  the  slime  was  turned 
To  adamant  by  their  petrific  touch. 
Frail  were  their  frames ;  ephemeral  their  lives ; 
Their  masonry  imperishable.     All 
Life's  needful  functions,  food,  exertion,  rest, 
By  nice  economy  of  Providence, 
Were  overruled  to  carry  on  the  process, 
Which  out  of  water  brought  forth  solid  rock. 
Atom  by  atom,  thus  the  burden  grew  — 
A  Coral  Island,  stretching  east  and  west. 
Steep  were  the  flanks,  with  precipices  sharp, 
Descending  to  their  base  in  ocean  gloom. 
Chasms,  few,  and  narrow,  and  irregular, 
Formed  harbours  safe  at  once  and  perilous — 
Safe  for  defence,  but  perilous  to  enter ; 
A  sea-lake  shone,  amidst  the  fossil  isle, 
Reflecting  in  a  ring  its  cliffs  and  caverns, 
With  heaven  itself,  seen  like  a  lake  below. 
Compared  with  this  amazing  edifice, 
Raised  by  the  feeblest  creatures  in  existence, 


•       CORAL    ISLANDS. 

What  are  the  works  of  intellectual  man, 

Towers,  temples,  palaces,  and  sepulchres  ? 

Dust  in  the  balance,  atoms  in  the  gale, 

Compared  with  these  achievements  in  the  deep, 

Were  all  the  monuments  of  olden  time. 

Egypt's  grey  piles  of  hieroglyphic  grandeur, 

That  have  survived  the  language  which  they  speak, 

Preserving  its  dead  emblems  to  the  eye, 

Yet  hiding  from  the  mind  what  these  reveal  — 

Her  pyramids  would  be  mere  pinnacles, 

Her  giant  statues,  wrought  from  rocks  of  granite, 

But  puny  ornaments  for  such  a  pile 

As  this  stupendous  mound  of  catacombs, 

Filled  with  dry  mummies  of  the  builder- worms! ' 


103 


CHAPTER    V. 

AN  UNFINISHED   CONTINENT. 

EXTENT  OF  THE    FORMATION. MURRAY    CLIFFS. STUR'f's 

LIST  OF   FOSSILS. DESCRIPTION   OF   THE   CLIFFS. EXTENT 

OF   THE   FORMATION   IN   A  WESTERLY  DIRECTION. STURT's 

ACCOUNT   OF   THE   FORMATION   TO    THE   NORTH.  —  FLINDERS' 

DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    SOUTH.  OTHER    OBSERVATIONS.  

BOUNDARIES  TO   THE   EASTWARD. TASMANIA. ORIGIN  OF 

THE  FORMATION.  —  SHOWING  SUBSIDENCE  OF  A  LARGE  AREA. 
—  DARWIN'S  THEORY.  — APPLICATION  OF  THIS  TO  THE  MOUNT 

GAMBIER  BEDS. OBJECTIONS  ANSWERED.  —  WHY  NO  REMAINS 

OF    ATOLLS    ARE    FOUND. PROBABLY    SOME    REMAINS    AT 

SWEDE'S   FLAT.  —  PROBABLE   TEMPERATURE   OF  THE    SEA. — 

GEOLOGICAL   PERIOD. ANALOGIES    IN    THE   PRESENT    STATE 

OF  THE  EARTH'S  CRUST  WITH  FORMER  GEOLOGICAL  EPOCHS. — 

ANALOGY  OF  AUSTRALIA  TO  THE  CHALK. RETARDED  STATE 

OF  ITS  ZOOLOGY. BAD  ADAPTABILITY  AS  A  RESIDENCE  FOR 

MAN. CONCLUDING  REMARKS. 

IT  will  be  remembered  that  the  district  to  which 
this  book  refers  is  bounded  on  the  north  and 
west  by  the  river  Murray,  and  on  the  west  to  the 
south  by  the  sea,  containing  an  area  of  about 
22,000  square  miles.  Now,  all  this  immense  tract 
of  land  is,  as  before  stated,  occupied  by  the  same 
formation,  with  one  or  two  exceptions.  Of  this, 
as  far  as  the  Mallee  Scrub,  and  even  somewhat  be- 
yond it,  we  have  proof  positive.  Wherever  cliffs 
are  seen  or  wells  sunk,  the  characteristic  shells 


104  BOUNDARIES   OF    THE   FORMATION. 

and  corals  appear.  A  large  space,  of  which  we  know 
little,  intervenes  between  the  commencement  of  the 
scrub  and  the  river,  and  then  fossiliferous  cliffs  of 
yellowish  limestone  line  each  side  of  the  stream. 
As  there  are  no  elevations  of  any  importance 
known  in  the  scrub,  and  as  the  soil  seems  to  pre- 
serve the  same  character  throughout  which  is  seen 
in  the  commencement,  it  is  no  very  great  stretch 
of  hypothesis  to  believe  that  the  formation  is  con- 
tinuous, that  is,  if  the  cliffs  on  the  Murray  are  of 
the  same  nature.  But  there  can  be  but  little  doubt 
of  this. 

When  Captain  Sturt  first  traced  down  the 
Murray  from  the  Murrumbidgee  in  1829,  he  came 
suddenly  to  a  part  of  the  river  somewhat  eastward 
of  the  present  boundary  of  South  Australia,  where 
it  was  bounded  on  each  side  by  high  limestone 
cliffs,  through  which  the  stream  seemed  to  have 
worn  a  bed.  These  continued  right  down  to  the 
sea  mouth,  and  even  then  seemed  to  be  prolonged 
along  the  coast  to  the  south-east.  By  referring 
to  a  map,  readers  will  see  that  the  river,  amid 
various  windings,  generally  preserves  a  south  and 
westerly  course,  until  where  it  suddenly  takes  a 
bend,  and  then  continues  south  to  the  sea.  This 
direction  of  the  river  is  just  such  as  must  cut 
through  any  intervening  strata  of  a  different  nature, 
if  there  were  any.  But  this  is  not  the  case.  On  the 
contrary,  the  whole  seems  to  be  of  the  same  de- 
scription of  rock.  From  the  following  list  of  fossils, 
engraved  or  described  by  Captain  Sturt,  the  iden- 


ST  CRT'S   LIST.  105 

tity  of  the  fauna  will  at  once  be  seen  when  com- 
pared with  the  list  already  given. 

The  catalogue  was  compiled  in  1832;  of  course 
due  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  nomenclature, 
in  consequence.  It  may  be  remarked,  that  the 
plates  in  the  work  in  which  this  list  occurs  show 
some  of  the  species  to  be  identical  with  some  in  my 
possession.  Thus,  what  he  terms  the  Spatangus 
Hoffmanni  is  the  S.  Forbesii  ;  the  Glauconome  is 
the  Salicornaria;  the  Eschara  celleporacea  is  the 
Cellepora  gambierensis,  common  to  the  whole  for- 
mation. But,  to  facilitate  the  comparison,  those 
fossils  found  at  Mount  Gambier  are  marked  with 
an  asterisk: — 

TUNICATA. 

(The  classification  is  left  as  it  stands  in  Sturt's  work.) 

*  Eachara  celleporacea. 

*  „        pisiformis. 
„        unnamed. 

*  Cellepora  echinata. 

„         escharoi'des. 

*  Retepora  disticha. 

„         silicata. 

*  Glauconome  rhombifera. 

All  tertiary  in  Westphalia  and  England. 

KADIATA. 

Scutella. 

*  Spatangus  Hoffinanni  Ooldfms. 

Tertiary  in  Westphalia. 
*Echinus. 

CONCHIFERA:    BIVALVED  SHELLS. 

%„' 

Corbula  gallica,  Paris  Basin,  tertiary. 
Tellina. 
Corbis  lamellosa,  tertiary,  Paris. 


106  THE   MUKRAY   BEDS. 

Lucina. 

*  Venus  (Cytherea)  Isevigata,  Paris. 

„  obliqua,  ibid. 

Venus. 

Cardium?  fragments. 
Nucula,  such  as  are  found  in  London  clay. 

*  Pecten  coarctatus,  Placentia. 

*  „      various,  recent. 

„      species  unknown. 

Two  other  Pectens  also  occur. 

*  Ostrea  elongata,  Deshayes. 

*  Terebratula. 

One  cast,  genus  unknown,  perhaps  a  Cardium. 

MOLLUSCA:    UNIVALYED  SHELLS. 

Bulla. 
Natica,  small. 

„        large  species. 
Dentalium. 
Trochus. 
TurriteUa. 

„        in  gyps. 
Murex. 
Buccinum. 
Mitra. 

„      very  short. 
Cyprsea. 
Conus. 

This  list  would  present  a  still  greater  resem- 
blance to  that  of  Mount  Gambier,  were  I  able  to 
avail  myself  of  the  numerous  collections  that  have 
been  since  made  of  that  locality.  That  the  de- 
posits are  identical,  I  have  no  doubt.  It  is  true 
that  the  limestone  is  of  a  yellowish  colour,  while 
at  Mount  Gambier  it  is  brilliant  white,  but  such  a 
change  takes  place  at  the  Mallee'  Scrub,  and  ap- 
pears to  be  due  to  local  circumstances.  The  same 
clay  is  seen  in  the  soil  above  the  Murray  cliffs, 
which  support  the  same  flora,  and  is  identical  in 


THE    MURRAY   BEDS.  107 

all  respects.  Perhaps  the  fossils  are  more  tropical 
in  the  Murray.  They  contain  more  Cephalopoda, 
larger  Terebratulce,  and,  in  fact,  generally  a  larger 
description  of  Testacea,  though  of  the  same  species 
as  those  of  Mount  Gambier.  But  the  difference 
of  temperature  must  be  taken  into  consideration; 
the  latter  is  nearly  three  degrees  of  latitude  farther 
from  the  tropics. 

The  cliffs  are  not  always  upon  both  sides  of  the 
river,  but  sometimes  on  one  and  sometimes  on 
the  other.  This  arises  from  the  current  coursing 
round  different  elevations  of  the  rock.  The  for- 
mation was  first  met  with  by  Captain  Sturt,  at 
about  long.  140°  east,  and  is  thus  described  by 
him: — • 

4  As  we  proceeded  down  the  river,  its  current 
became  weaker,  and  its  channel  somewhat  deeper. 
Our  attention  was  called  to  a  remarkable  change 
in  the  geology  of  the  country,  as  well  as  to  an 
apparent  alteration  in  the  natural  productions. 
The  cliffs  of  sand  and  clay  ceased,  and  were  suc- 
ceeded by  a  fossil  formation  of  the  most  singular 
description.  At  first,  it  did  not  exceed  a  foot  in 
height  above  the  water,  but  it  gradually  rose  like 
an  inclined  plane,  and  in  colour  and  in  appear- 
ance resembled  the  skulls  of  men  piled  one  upon 
the  other.  The  constant  rippling  of  the  water 
against  the  rock  had  washed  out  the  softer  parts, 
and  made  hollows  and  cavities  that  gave  tta  whole 
formation  the  precise  appearance  of  a  catacomb. 

4  On  examination,  we  discovered  it  to  be  a  com- 


108  THE    MURRAY   BEDS. 

pact  bed  of  shells,  composed  of  a  common  descrip- 
tion of  marine  shells,  from  two  to  three  inches  in 
length,  apparently  a  species  of  Turritella. 

'  At  about  nine  miles  from  the  commencement  of 
this  formation  it  rose  to  the  height  of  more  than 
150  feet;  the  country  became  undulating,  and  a 
partial  change  took  place  in  its  vegetation.  We 
stopped  at  an  early  hour  to  examine  some  cliffs, 
which,  rising  perpendicularly  from  the  water,  were 
different  in  character  and  substance  from  any  we 
had  as  yet  seen.  They  approached  a  dirty-yellow 
ochre  in  colour,  that  became  brighter  in  hue  as  it 
rose,  and,  instead  of  being  perforated,  were  compact 
and  hard.  The  waters  of  the  river  had,  however, 
made  horizontal  lines  upon  these  fronts,  which  dis- 
tinctly marked  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  river,  as  the 
strength  or  depth  of  the  grooves  distinctly  indicated 
the  levels  it  generally  kept.  It  did  not  appear  from 
these  lines  that  the  floods  ever  rose  more  than 
four  feet  above  the  then  level  of  the  stream,  or 
that  they  continued  for  any  length  of  time.  On 
breaking  off  pieces  of  the  rock,  we  ascertained  that 
it  was  composed  of  one  solid  mass  of  sea-shells,  of 
various  kinds,  of  which  the  species  first  mentioned 
formed  the  lowest  part. 

****** 

As  we  proceeded  down  the  river,  we  found  that  it 
was  confined  in  a  glen,  whose  extreme  breadth 
was  not  more  than  half  a  mile. 

'The  hills  that  rose  on  either  side  of  it  were 
of  pretty  equal  height.  The  alluvial  flats  were 


THE    MUKKAY   BEDS.  109 

extremely  small,  and  the  boldest  cliffs  separated 
them  from  each  other.  The  flats  were  lightly 
wooded,  and  were,  for  the  most  part,  covered  with 
reeds  or  Polygonum.  They  were  not  much  ele- 
vated above  the  waters  of  the  river,  and  had  every 
appearance  of  being  frequently  inundated.  At 
noon  we  pulled  up  to  dine,  upon  the  left  bank, 
under  some  hills,  which  were  from  200  to  250  feet 
in  height.  While  the  men  were  preparing  our  tea 
(for  we  had  only  that  to  boil),  M'Leay  and  I 
ascended  the  hills.  The  brush  was  so  thick  upon 
them  that  we  could  not  obtain  a  view  of  the  dis- 
tant interior.  Their  summits  were  covered  with 
oyster-shells,  in  such  abundance  as  entirely  to 
preclude  the  idea  of  their  having  been  brought 
to  such  a  position  by  the  natives.  They  were  in 
every  stage  of  petrifaction.' 

At  the  great  southerly  bend  very  finely  pre- 
served fossils  are  found;  and  in  a  collection  sent 
to  me  I  had  no  difficulty  in  recognising  (as  before 
stated)  many  of  the  Mount  Gambier  species,  but 
there  were  others  among  them  which  I  have  not 
as  yet  seen  in  the  latter  place.  To  the  north  of 
the  river  Murray  the  country  stretches  out,  in  an 
unknown  plain  of  scrub,  for  very  many  miles, 
where,  according  to  some,  the  same  foundation 
may  be  occasionally  seen.  The  uncertainty  of  such 
observations  leaves  it  doubtful  if  such  be  the  case, 
but  the  same  flat  scrub  of  yellow  sand  renders  it 
far  from  improbable. 

If  the  area  covered  by  this  one   formation  be 


110  EXTENT  OF   THE   BEDS. 

now  calculated,  the  territory  occupied  by  it  will 
be  seen  to  be  immense.  But  we  have  only  been 
considering  it  in  its  north  and  south  direction, 
a  little  to  the  west  of  the  boundary  between  the 
two  colonies.  Let  us  now  follow  it  farther  to  the 
westward.  On  the  map  it  will  be  seen  that  there 
is  a  jutting-out  of  the  coast  (Cape  Jervis)  to  the 
west  of  the  Murray  mouth,  which  promontory  is 
the  commencement  of  a  range  of  hills  upon  which 
Adelaide  is  placed. 

The  range  continues  in  a  north  and  south  direc- 
tion, with  few  intervals,  right  up  to  Mount  Hope- 
less, at  the  bend  of  Lake  Torrens,  some  500  miles 
to  the  northward  of  where  the  range  commences. 
It  is  not  meant  that  this  chain  is  uninterrupted,  or 
that  there  are  not  occasionally  bends-off  to  the 
north-west,  and  there  are  some  in  an  easterly  direc- 
tion, as,  for  instance,  the  Barossa  Ranges,  and  many 
spurs  and  small  ranges  running  off  at  various 
points,  but  no  one  can  look  at  the  map  without 
being  convinced  that  they  all  belong  to  one  chain 
of  mountain,  of  which  the  loftiest  is  not  more  than 
3,000  feet  high,  running  in  a  general  northerly 
direction. 

They  are  all  of  nearly  the  same  description  of 
rock,  namely,  slates,  schists,  and  metamorphic 
rocks,  with  occasionally  granite,  porphyry,  and  trap 
rocks.  A  description  has  been  already  given  in 
the  second  chapter  of  this  work.  Let  them  only 
be  borne  in  mind  just  now  for  the  sake  of  getting 
a  good  idea  of  the  geographical  features  of  this 


EXTENT  OF  THE    BEDS.  Ill 

part  of  Australia,  in  order  to  better  understand 
the  subject  under  consideration. 

The  fossil  coral  formation  extends  to  the  foot  of 
these  in  a  westerly  direction  as  far  as  they  are 
known,  and  seems  to  have  been  deposited  round 
them.  Between  the  chain  and  the  river  Murray 
there  is  always  a  large  extent  of  flat  scrubby  land, 
known  as  the  Murray  Scrub.  It  possesses  the 
usual  character  of  such  scrubs,  and,  wherever  wells 
have  been  sunk,  the  usual  shells  have  been  found. 

Commonly,  there  is  a  bed  of  oyster-shells  on  the 
top,  with  others  of  a  much  more  recent  origin  than 
those  in  the  strata  beneath,  being,  in  fact,  mostly  of 
existing  species,  and  this  is  one  of  the  exceptions 
referred  to  just  now. 

When  it  is  stated  that  only  one  deposit  is  found  in 
the  whole  district,  it  is  not  meant  to  exclude  others 
which  may  overlay  them.  There  is  a  newer  de- 
posit more  or  less  distributed  over  this  part  of  the 
country,  but  then  the  older  is  always  underneath, 
and  visible  at  a  small  depth,  or  may  reasonably  be 
presumed  to  be  present  from  the  fact  of  its  dipping 
under  the  newer  beds  and  reappearing  again  on 
the  other  side. 

On  reaching  the  western  side  of  the  great  South 
Australian  chain  the  formation  disappears.  On  the 
east  side,  again,  a  little  plain  is  bounded  by  the 
sea,  which  runs  in  an  estuary  to  the  northward  of 
Adelaide,  and  bears  the  name  of  St.  Vincent's  Gulf. 
The  western  side  of  the  gulf  is  bounded  by  Yorke's 
Peninsula,  a  narrow  boot-shaped  strip  of  land,  in 


112  EXTENT  OF  THE   BEDS. 

which  the  fossil  beds  appear  again.  High  limestone 
cliffs  bound  one  side  of  the  coast,  and  at  Kangaroo 
Island,  which  is  only  separated  from  the  peninsula 
by  a  channel  bearing  the  name  of  Investigator's 
Straits,  the  fossiliferous  rock  is  repeated,  at  least 
in  a  few  spots.  To  the  westward  of  Yorke's  Penin- 
sula, a  great  gulf  (Spencer's  Gulf)  runs  up  much 
farther  to  the  north  than  the  one  just  mentioned, 
and  west  of  that  the  country  stretches  out  in  an 
almost  unbroken  scrub  as  far  as  the  colony  of 
Western  Australia. 

Of  the  nature  of  the  geological  formation  we  can 
know  but  little  as  certain ;  but,  if  we  have  pretty 
accurate  notions  of  what  lies  to  the  north  and 
what  to  the  south,  and  know,  further,  that  there 
are  no  ranges  of  any  consequence  intervening,  we 
can  form  some  idea  of  what  rocks  should  exist  there. 

Of  course  such  conclusions  are  liable  to  error, 
because,  if  there  may  be  an  immense  difference  of 
geological  character  in  a  small  space  of  ground, 
how  much  more  in  such  a  space  as  that  which  lies 
between  the  points  to  be  referred  to  ?  Of  one  thing 
we  may  be  sure,  however,  and  that  is,  that  there 
are  no  mountain  ranges  of  any  altitude.  If  such 
existed,  they  would  give  rise  to  rivers,  and  in  the 
great  Australian  Bight,  to  the  south,  no  such 
features  occur. 

When  Captain  Sturt,  in  1845,  pushed  far  into 
the  north-west  interior  and  crossed  the  Stony  De- 
sert,* he  found  that  fossiliferous  limestone  cropped 

*  See  Expedition  to  Central  Australia,  vol.  i. 


BEDS    EXTENDING   TO    THE    WESTWAED.          113 

out  on  each  side  of  Lake  Torrens,  and,  in  fact,  in  all 
the  flats  of  the  interior  where  a  view  of  the  under- 
lying rock  could  be  obtained,  he  stated  that  the 
fossils  were  identical  with  those  of  the  Murray 
cliffs. 

Now,  though  there  is  every  probability  of  the 
correctness  of  these  conclusions,  yet  they  cannot  be 
considered  much  more  than  surmises  without  some 
further  data,  because  Captain  Sturt  was  not  a  very 
experienced  geologist,  and  geology  then  was  in 
no  very  advanced  state,  so  that  assertions  on  such 
matters  must  be  accepted  with  caution.  While 
stating  this,  a  tribute  is  in  other  respects  due  to 
Sturt's  merit ;  indeed,  if  it  were  not  out  of  place 
here,  I  would  add  my  mite  to  the  general  testimony 
of  admiration  for  that  learned  explorer,  whose  zeal, 
untiring  energy,  and  courage,  were  enhanced  by  a 
humanity  and  unselfishness  rarely  met  with,  and 
yet  whose  unpretending  modesty  shrank  from 
praise,  while  it  threw  a  charm  over  all  his  narra- 
tives. But  still  Captain  Sturt  may  have  been  mis- 
taken in  the  description  of  these  fossils.  It  is  not 
stated  whether  he  made  any  collections  of  them ;  if 
so,  they  would  set  the  question  at  rest  at  once. 
We  will  suppose,  however,  they  were  identical  with 
those  of  the  Murray.  We  may  do  so  because  of  the 
nature  of  the  country,  and  because  of  what  is  found 
to  the  south. 

Following  in  this  direction,  we  should  come  upon 
the  Australian  Bight,  that  is,  supposing  the  deposits 
to  continue  from  the  parallel  of  Lake  Torrens — a 


114  CENTEAL   AUSTRALIA. 

distance  of  about  5°  of  latitude  to  the  most 
northerly  portion  of  the  Bight,  and  about  10° 
to  the  most  southerly,  which  is  King  George's 
Sound.  Now,  be  it  observed,  that  to  reach  these 
points  we  should  have  to  traverse  a  country  with 
few  or  no  elevations,  and  that  as  the  rocks  to  the 
north  were  crag,  and  if  those  of  the  south  were 
crag  too,  we  may  at  least  conclude  that  the  strata 
are  continuous,  — at  any  rate,  in  some  places.  Of 
the  nature  of  the  deposit  all  along  the  coast  we 
have  the  testimony  of  very  many  persons  who  have 
inspected  it,  and  they  all  agree  in  describing  it  as 
cliffs  of  fossils, precisely  similar  to  the  Murray  beds. 
In  most  cases,  however,  it  is  to  be  regretted,  such 
accounts  are  from  men  not  capable  of  examining 
whether  the  identity  was  a  fact  borne  out  by  the 
fossils,  or  given  at  a  time  when  geology  was  not  so 
far  advanced  as  it  is  at  present;  but  the  evidence 
will  go  far  towards  positive  proof,  when  it  is  shown 
that  the  cliffs  are  precisely  similar  in  appearance  to 
those  of  the  Murray,  and  struck  the  observers  as 
being  just  such,  as  would  arise  from  a  coral  reef ; 
for  there  is  no  other  formation  in  Australia,  as  far 
as  my  knowledge  goes,  to  which  the  same  descrip- 
tion would  be  applied. 

Captain  Flinders  gave  the  following  description 
of  the  Australian  coast  after  his  survey  in  1802 : — 
'  The  length  of  these  cliffs  from  their  second  com- 
mencement is  33  leagues,  and  that  of  the  level  bank 
from  New  Cape  Paisley,  where  it  was  first  seen 
from  the  sea,  no  less  than  145  leagues.  The  height 
of  this  extraordinary  bank  is  nearly  the  same 


WESTERN   AUSTRALIA.  115 

throughout,  being  nowhere  less  by  estimation 
than  400  feet,  nor  anywhere  more  than  600  feet. 
In  the  first  20  leagues  the  rugged  tops  of  some 
inland  mountains  were  visible  over  it,  but  during 
the  remainder  of  its  long  course  the  bank  was  the 
limit  of  the  view. 

1  This  equality  of  elevation  for  so  great  an  extent, 
and  the  evidently  calcareous  nature  of  the  bank,  at 
least  in  the  upper  200  feet,  would  bespeak  to  have 
been  the  exterior  line  of  some  vast  coral  reef,  which 
is  always  more  elevated  than  the  interior  parts,  and 
commonly  level  with  the  high- water  mark.  From 
the  gradual  subsiding  of  the  sea,  or,  perhaps,  from 
some  convulsion  of  nature,  this  bank  may  have 
attained  its  present  height  above  the  surface,  and, 
however  extraordinary  such  a  change  may  appear, 
yet  when  it  is  recollected  that  branches  of  coral 
still  exist  upon  Bald  Head,  at  an  elevation  of  400 
feet  or  more,  this  supposition  assumes  a  degree  of 
probability,  and  it  would  further  seem  that  the  sub- 
sidence of  the  waters  has  not  been  at  a  period  very 
remote,  since  these  fossil  branches  have  yet  neither 
been  all  beaten  down,  nor  mouldered  away  by  the 
wind  and  weather. 

'  If  this  supposition  be  well  founded,  it  may,  with 
the  fact  of  no  other  hill  or  object  having  been  per- 
ceived above  the  bank,  in  the  greater  part  of  its 
course,  assist  in  forming  some  conjecture  as  to  what 
may  be  within  it,  which  cannot,  as  I  judge  in  such  a 
case,  be  other  than  flat  sandy  plains  or  water.  The 
bank  may  even  be  a  narrow  barrier,  between  the 

T    2 


116  THE   AUSTRALIAN   BIGHT. 

interior  and  the  exterior  sea,  and  much  do  I  regret 
the  not  having  formed  an  idea  of  this  probability  at 
the  time,  for,  notwithstanding  the  great  difficulty 
and  the  risk,  I  should  certainly  have  attempted  a 
landing  on  some  part  of  the  coast,  to  ascertain  a 
fact  of  so  much  importance.'* 

It  must  be  remarked  that  Cape  Paisley,  124°  E. 
longitude,  is  made  the  commencement  of  the  Bight ; 
but  a  reference  to  the  map  will  show  that  the  great 
bend  commences  farther  east,  nearly  at  King 
George's  Sound.  Captain  Flinders  also  states  in  the 
above  passage,  that  mountains  were  seen  inland 
for  the  first  twenty  leagues,  but  this  in  no  way 
affects  the  position  as  to  the  general  continuity  of 
the  strata,  for  he  further  remarks,  that  the  coral  is 
seen  in  the  cliffs  at  Bald  Head,  which  is  much 
farther  to  the  eastward,  and  not  very  far  from  King 
George's  Sound.  The  supposition  of  the  receding 
of  the  sea,  and  the  great  reluctance  displayed  by 
the  explorer  to  broach  so  daring  a  theory  as  the 
upheaval  of  the  land,  show  that  geological  know- 
ledge was  not  in  such  a  state  as  to  make  observa- 
tions in  that  department  very  satisfactory.  The 
facts,  however,  are  certain,  and  what  Captain 
Flinders  supposed  to  have  been  a  barrier  reef  is 
the  remains  of  something  similar,  though  there  is 
no  water  on  the  other  side,  as  he  and  Captain  Sturt 
at  one  time  supposed,  and  the  country  is  little  more 
than  a  barren  desert. 

Captain  Sturt,  in  speaking  of  the  above  opinion 

*  Flinders'  Voyage  to  Teira  Australia.      London,  1814. 


THE   AUSTRALIAN   BIGHT.  117 

of  Captain  Flinders,  says :  '  His  [Flinders']  impres- 
sion, from  what  lie  observed  while  sailing  along 
the  coast,  in  a  great  measure  corresponds  with 
mine,  when  travelling  inland.  The  only  point  we 
differ  upon  is  as  to  the  probable  origin  of  the  great 
sea-wall,  which  appeared  to  him  to  be  of  a  calca- 
reous formation,  and  therefore  he  concluded  that  it 
had  been  a  coral  reef,  raised  by  some  convulsion  of 
nature.  Had  Captain  Flinders  been  able  to  examine 
the  rock  formation  of  the  Great  Australian  Bight, 
he  would  have  found  that  it  was,  for  the  most  part, 
an  oolitic  limestone,  with  many  shells  embedded  in 
it,  similar  in  substance  and  formation  to  the  fossil 
beds  of  the  Murray,  but  differing  in  colour.'* 

Upon  what  data  these  latter  statements  are 
made,  Captain  Sturt  does  not  tell  us,  but  it  may  be 
here  noticed,  that  he  thought  the  beds  were  ^con- 
tinuous with  those  he  observed  farther  inland, 
that  is,  on  the  banks  of  Lake  Torrens.  Indeed,  this 
is  assumed,  with  good  reason,  throughout  his  whole 
work.  It  may  be  observed,  that  Captain  Sturt 
differs  with  Captain  Flinders  as  to  the  nature  of 
the  formation,  and  does  not  think  that  it  arose  from 
a  coral  reef;  but  the  very  facts  he  brings  in  sup- 
port of  his  position  bear  out  the  conclusion  he 
essays  to  disprove.  From  what  has  been  already 
said  in  this  chapter,  the  description  of  Flinders  is 
just  what  we  might  expect  from  coral  reefs,  and 
had  the  exploration  of  the  Pacific  and  the  nature  of 
our  chalk  rocks  at  home  been  better  known  than 

'  *  Start's  Central  Australia,  vol.  ii.     London,  1849. 


118  THE   AUSTRALIAN   BIGHT. 

they  were  when  Sturt  wrote,  he  would  not  have 
contradicted  the  former  explorer,  as  no  one  cared 
less  than  he  did  for  his  own  opinion,  provided  truth 
were  elicited.  The  peculiar  views  held  by  the  latter 
were  intended  as  a  bold  and  ingenious  explanation 
of  the  physical  features  of  the  interior,  and  are 
inconsistent  with  the  idea  of  a  coral  reef  on  the 
coast.  He  supposed  that  the  inland  sea  in  the 
interior  (of  which  there  was  probable  evidence), 
gave  rise  to  the  crag  beds,  and  what  is  seen  on  the 
coast  is  the  drainage  of  this  sea.  I  gather  this 
view  from  his  work  generally,  though  it  is  hardly 
so  distinctly  enunciated;  but,  in  speaking  of  the 
Murray  and  the  granite  rocks  therein,  he  supposes 
that  this  on  the  Murray  stopped  the  drainage,  and 
gave  rise  to  the  deep  deposit  of  exuviaB  seen  there. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  these  views  are 
incorrect.  The  granite  appears  to  me  intrusive, 
and  probably  connected  with  the  subsequent  vol- 
canic emanations  which  took  place  at  Mount  Gam- 
bier.  They  will  be  described  hereafter. 

To  return  to  the  evidence  as  to  the  nature  of  the 
Australian  Bight.  When  Mr.  Eyre  went  overland 
to  King  George's  Sound,  a  Mr.  Cannon  was  sent  to 
Fowler's  Bay  (east  longitude  about  133°,  south 
latitude  about  33°),  to  meet  the  explorer  with  sup- 
plies, and  survey  the  coast  in  the  neighbourhood. 
He  says : — l  From  the  general  flatness  of  the  coun- 
try, it  may  be  presumed  that  its  characters  do  not 
alter  for  a  great  distance  inland.  I  observed  nothing 
of  the  formation  of  the  islands  differing  from  the 


THE    AUSTRALIAN   BIGHT.  119 

mainland,  and  I  may  mention  that  the  rock  of  the 
Isles  of  St.  Francis  presented  the  same  appearance 
as  the  Murray  cliffs.' 

I  do  not  offer  these  and  other  similar  testimonies 
as  decisive  of  the  nature  of  the  formation,  but  they 
are  rendered  more  than  probable  evidences  when 
considered  with  other  circumstances.  These  are : — 
The  observations  of  Captain  Sturt,  the  flat  and 
open  nature  of  the  intervening  country,  so  closely 
resembling  the  Murray  Scrubs,  and  the  absence  of 
rivers  which  would  lead  to  the  inference  of  no  rises 
or  elevations,  and,  therefore,  no  upheaval  or  other 
likelihood  of  great  changes,  in  the  strata  between 
the  West  and  the  great  South  Australian  chain.  It 
is  not  attempted  here  to  define  boundaries,  or  to 
say  that  there  are  no  interruptions.  How  far  the 
strata  may  extend  to  the  north  we  know  not ;  they 
are  seen  at  Lake  Torrens,  but  that  may  be  its 
highest  point,  and  its  western  extremity  is  unknown 
to  me.  As  to  interruptions,  they  are  certain.  The 
mountains  alluded  to  by  Flinders  are  instances ; 
and  then,  again,  the  metamorphic  rocks  about  Port 
Lincoln.  Latterly,  discoveries  in  the  north-west 
country  from  Lake  Torrens  have  shown  that  granite 
rocks  and  elevations  occur  in  the  interior.  These 
may  have  been  islands  in  the  coral  sea,  or  they  may 
have  been  intruded  subsequently,  as  is  probably 
the  case  with  the  granite  rocks  in  the  bed  of  the 
river  Murray,  and  through  the  Tatiara  coimtry  to 
the  north  of  Penola ;  but,  at  any  rate,  it  is  not  pre- 
tended that  no  breaks  occur  in  the  strata,  though 


no  EXTENT   TO    THE    EASTWARD. 

there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  in  spreading  over  as 
they  do  so  wide  an  extent,  the  interruption  is  very 
small. 

Having  followed  this  formation  westward  of 
Adelaide,  and  having  mentioned  the  evidence  in 
favour  of  the  surmise  that  a  great  portion  of  Cen- 
tral Australia  is  occupied  by  the  same  crag  de- 
posit, it  is  necessary  to  state  how  far  it  extends 
to  the  eastward  of  the  boundary  line  between  the 
colonies  of  Victoria  and  South  Australia.  It  is 
rather  singular  that  the  141st  meridian  of  east  lon- 
gitude, chosen  as  a  boundary  (most  unadvisedly, 
while  the  river  Murray  would  have  made  a  natu- 
ral one)  between  the  two  colonies,  should  be  really, 
within  a  few  miles,  a  geological  boundary.  Gene- 
rally, along  the  line,  or  near  it,  trap  rocks  occur, 
and  continue  for  some  distance.  These  rocks  are 
merely  a  stratum,  and  are  founded  on  the  coralline 
rocks  underneath.  It  appears  that  there  has  been, 
during  the  Post-Pleiocene  epoch,  an  immense  flow 
of  basaltic  trap,  probably  from  submarine  volca- 
noes, and  this  has  given  rise  to  the  rocks  as  they 
are  now  found.  Though  there  are  a  great  num- 
ber of  extinct  volcanoes  to  the  eastward  of  South 
Australia,  I  do  not  think  the  trap  has  been  derived 
from  any  of  them,  because  the  lava  is  less  vesicular 
and  more  compact  than  can  be  accounted  for  by 
supposing  a  subaerial  crater;  and,  secondly,  there 
is  no  evidence  of  any  great  flow  of  lava  from  any 
that  at  present  exist. 

In  some  places,  the  limestone  is  seen  to  protrude 


EXTENT   TO    THE    EASTWAED.  121 

from  the  igneous  rock,  and  at  Portland  Bay,  about 
fifty  miles  to  the  east  of  South  Australia,  where 
the  coast  action  has  exposed  a  fine  section,  the  coral- 
line limestone  is  seen  underneath.  These  beds  I 
have  carefully  examined,  and  can  state  that  the 
fossils  are  quite  identical  with  those  of  Mount 
Gambier.  There  is  certainly  a  greater  proportion 
of  one  kind  to  the  exclusion  of  others,  such,  for 
instance,  as  the  abundance  of  Spatangus  Forbesii, 
Terebratula  compta,  while  univalves  are  almost 
absent,  and  the  character  of  the  stone  is  brittle  and 
friable.  But  such  differences  as  these,  while  the 
fauna  remains  the  same,  are  more  to  be  attributed 
to  local  circumstances  than  differences  of  geological 
position. 

It  would  appear  as  if  the  beds  at  Portland  were 
formed  farther  away  from  the  reef  than  those  at 
Mount  Gambier,  for  corals  are  uncommon,  the 
Bryozoa  small,  the  fossils,  with  very  rare  excep- 
tions, much  broken,  and  the  stone  is  more  like  the 
white  mud,  spoken  of  previously,  than  what  is  seen 
elsewhere.  The  Cellepora  gambierensis  is  absent. 
The  cliffs  are  topped  with  the  oyster-shells  seen 
on  the  Murray,  -and  then  overlaid  again  by  the 
basaltic  trap,  which  is  here  very  much  decom- 
posed. The  fossil  cliffs  extend  along  the  coast  be- 
tween Port  Fairy  and  Cape  Otway,  and  this  is  about 
the  same  longitude  as  that  on  which  they  termi- 
nate on  the  Murray.  Of  their  continuance  in  a 
southerly  direction  we  have  no  direct  evidence, 
but  beds  are  described  as  occurring  in  Tasmania 


122  EXTENT   TO   THE   EASTWARD. 

which,  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  our  formation. 
In  works  on  that  country  they  are  sometimes 
alluded  to,  but  in  Bunce's  '  Australasiatic  Sketches' 
they  are  more  dwelt  upon.  As  the  passage  is 
really  very  interesting,  its  quotation  will  be  par- 
doned, as  illustrating  things  which  will  be  spoken 
of  again,  but  I  must  admit  that  the  phraseology 
of  the  description  would  be  quite  as  applicable  to 
primary  as  to  tertiary  rocks,  In  an  overland  jour- 
ney to  Launceston,  speaking  of  a  range  of  hills 
about  twenty-one  miles  from  Westbury,  he  says : — 
'  On  ascending  the  ridge  of  this  series  of  hills, 
a  magnificent  view  presented  itself,  suddenly,  to 
the  delighted  traveller,  of  rich  and  fertile  surface, 
with  purple-tinted  romantic  hills  in  the  distance. 
After  descending  the  ridge  already  named  for  the 
distance  of  five  or  six  miles,  we  crossed  the  Mole- 
side  rivulet,  so  called  from  the  circumstance  of  its 
occasionally  disappearing  and  flowing  underneath 
the  ground,  like  the  river  Mole,  in  England.  The 
whole  of  this  neighbourhood  is  of  limestone,  with 
beautiful  white  veins,  and  the  strata  are  nearly 
horizontal.  There  is  a  small  circular  plain,  about 
the  distance  of  five  miles  from  where  we  crossed 
Moleside.  The  character  of  the  country  was  most  re- 
markable, and  appeared  intersected  for  many  miles 
by  numerous  underground  streams,  flowing  in  dif- 
ferent directions,  and  at  various  depths.  The  effect 
of  these  streams  thus  flowing  underground  causes 
the  undermining  of  the  superincumbent  earth, 
which,  being  thus  left  without  a  foundation,  has 


TASMANIAN   BEDS.  123 

fallen  in  many  places,  forming  pits  and  basins  of 
the  most  singular  kind,  varying  in  depth  of  from 
twenty  to  two  hundred  feet,  and  shaped  like  a  fun- 
nel. Many  instances  of  this  kind  may  be  observed 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Mount  Gambler  and  many 
parts  of  the  country  near  the  Glenelg  river  in  Vic  - 
toria.  In  the  bottom  of  most  of  them  is  a  small 
circular  pool  of  water,  of  immeasurable  depth.  A 
party  on  one  occasion  descended  one  of  the  deepest 
of  them,  and  at  the  bottom  found  a  cavern  extend- 
ing both  ways,  into  which  they  entered.  After 
following  its  course,  a  sound  of  running  water 
was  heard,  and,  although  they  were  without  lights, 
the  reflection  from  the  entrance  was  sufficient  to 
enable  them  to  distinguish  a  large  body  of  water 
rushing  from  a  height,  and  flowing  away,  as  it 
were,  beneath  their  feet.' 

There  is  nothing  here  mentioned  about  fossils, 
and  an  apology  is  almost  necessary  for  the  intro- 
duction of  a  long  extract  which  bears  so  little  on 
the  subject  of  this  chapter.  Still,  the  mention  of 
the  circular  pits,  the  caves,  and  the  underground 
rivers,  is  so  very  like  what  is  subsequently  to  be 
described  of  Mount  Gambier  and  the  vicinity,  that 
it  was  considered  of  some  value  to  point  out  the 
resemblance,  and  thence  the  faint  possibility  of  the 
deposit  extending  so  far.  If  the  beds  were  spread 
out  to  such  an  extent  southwards,  they  would  only 
be  in  the  form  of  the  white  mud,  which  occasionally 
drifts  to  so  great  a  distance  from  the  reefs,  and 
therefore  fossils  could  not  be  expected.  The  mere 


124  GEOLOGICAL    CONCLUSIONS. 

existence  of  caves  and  rivers  is,  however,  no 
evidence,  as  they  are  found  wherever  there  is  lime- 
stone. In  the  Wellington  Valley,  in  New  South 
Wales,  there  are  many  of  great  extent,  containing 
bones,  &c.,  though  the  formation  in  which  they 
occur  is  very  different  from  that  of  Mount  Gam- 
bier.  Some  of  these  have  never  been  explored,  in 
consequence  of  the  rush  of  wind  from  them,  which 
prevents  their  entry  with  torches. 

With  the  facts  just  mentioned  all  further  clue  to 
our  formation  eastward  or  to  the  south  is  lost,  and 
though  much  uncertainty  must  prevail  if  we  at- 
tempt to  define  boundaries,  enough  has  been  said 
to  show  that  the  formation  covers  a  very  wide 
extent  of  country.  And  now,  having  shown  this 
immense  extent  to  be  covered  by  one  formation, 
let  us  enquire  what  has  been  the  nature  of  the 
operations  which  gave  rise  to  it,  and  what  other 
geological  conclusions  may  be  drawn  from  the 
detail  given  in  the  foregoing  pages. 

In  the  first  place,  the  formation  has  arisen  from 
a  series  of  coral  reefs,  or  is,  in  other  words,  the  re- 
sult of  a  coral  sea.  What  has  been  already  said 
in  proof  of  this  need  not,  of  course,  be  here  re- 
peated ;  but,  if  there  should  be  any  doubt  on  the 
matter,  what  will  be  now  adduced  will  serve  to 
bear  out  the  view  already  taken.  Secondly,  the 
land  has  been  subsiding  during  the  accumulation 
of  the  strata.  There  are  many  reasons  to  be  given 
for  this,  but  the  most  cogent  of  all  is,  that  stra- 
tified beds  of  any  thickness  are  never  deposited 


GEOLOGICAL   CONCLUSIONS.  125 

except  where  subsidence  is  taking  place.  If  we 
remark  the  coasts  of  Australia,  which  are  now 
evidently  in  course  of  upheaval,  only  very  thin 
beds  are  seen  to  result,  because,  as  the  raising  force 
is  constantly  changing  the  coast  or  the  shallow 
parts,  where  alone  deposition  takes  place,  there  can 
be  no  time  for  any  great  accumulations.  On  the 
other  hand,  subsidence  gives  the  greatest  facilities 
for  the  deposition  of  thick  strata,  because,  the 
deeper  the  sea,  the  more  tranquil  the  bottom,  and 
the  greater  area  there  is  for  the  distribution  of 
shells,  either  borne  from  the  coast  by  currents  or 
worn  away  from  other  rocks  by  denudation.  Be- 
sides, the  only  favourable  time  for  a  developement 
of  coral  reefs  is  during  a  period  of  subsidence ;  at 
least,  according  to  the  ingenious  theory  now  to  be 
mentioned,  and  which  is  at  present  universally 
adopted. 

Most  persons  are  familiar  with  Darwin's  clever 
and  interesting  work  on  the  '  Structure  and  For- 
mation of  Coral  Reefs,'  but,  as  nearly  all  here 
adduced  will  be  unintelligible  without  a  clear 
knowledge  of  the  subject,  the  repetition  of  the 
main  points  of  the  theory  of  that  great  geologist 
will  be  pardoned.  In  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  other 
tropical  regions,  coral  islands  occur  of  a  most  sin- 
gular form :  these  are  the  atolls  before  described. 
It  was  formerly  supposed  that  these  were  reefs  built 
on  the  edges  of  extinct  craters  under  the  sea,  and  it 
was  imagined  that  the  ova  of  the  coral  animal 
pitched  upon  these  sites  as  very  favourable  to  their 


126  A   PERIOD    OF    SUBSIDENCE. 

operations,  and  then  commenced  building  a  reef 
to  the  surface.  There  were  circumstances  appa- 
rently favourable  to  this  view.  An  aperture  was 
generally  found  on  one  side  of  the  lagoon  through 
which  the  lava  of  the  supposed  volcano  underneath 
might  have  escaped,  and  earthquakes  were  not  un- 
common in  this  neighbourhood.  But  a  fatal  diffi- 
culty to  be  got  over  was  their  immense  size ;  for 
craters  were  never  known  sixty  miles  wide.  This 
was  an  enormous  improbability.  Besides  which 
the  depth  around  these  lagoons  was  more  than 
1,200  feet,  where  bottom  could  be  reached  (which, 
was  rarely),  and  it  was  known  that  the  coral  animal 
could  not  exist  at  a  greater  depth  than  180  feet. 

It  of  course  suggested  itself  to  every  observer, 
that  if  there  was  an  old  crater  underneath  it  must 
be  at  a  great  depth,  and  how  was  the  animal  to 
have  got  to  it  when  a  quarter  that  depth  was  suffi- 
cient to  destroy  its  life?  At  last,  Mr.  Charles 
Darwin,  after  his  voyage  in  the  Beagle,  suggested 
a  theory  which  has  been  since  universally  adopted. 
According  to  this,  the  coral  animal  seeks  any 
foundation  to  build  upon  that  is  not  out  of  its 
depth,  supposing  this  to  be  an  island.  If  the 
land  be  stationary,  the  coral  will  build  to  the  sur- 
face, and  then  either  die  or  extend  itself  in  a  late- 
ral direction ;  if  the  land  be  in  course  of  upheaval, 
the  reef  must  at  length  perish;  but  if  the  land  be 
subsiding,  the  animal  will  build  to  keep  near  the 
surface,  and  of  course  the  rate  of  building  must 
keep  pace  with  the  subsidence,  or  it  will  be  sub- 
merged and  destroyed. 


A   PERIOD    OF  SUBSIDENCE.  127 

It  is  evident  that  as  the  island  sinks  the  distance 
between  the  reef  and  the  shore  will  be  increased, 
and  when  the  land  disappears  entirely  a  ring  of 
coral  will  still  be  at  the  surface  round  the  remains  of 
the  old  terra-firma,  like  a  fence  round  the  grave  of 
the  departed.  It  will  be  unnecessary  to  go  through 
all  the  arguments  by  which  this  view  is  borne  out, 
or  to  state  the  reasons  of  the  breaks  in  the  side, 
the  lagoon,  &c.,  but  what  bears  on  the  matter  in 
question  will  be  elucidated  as  we  proceed. 

So  that,  from  the  theory  just  given,  we  must 
regard  the  coral  district  of  the  Pacific  as  an  im- 
mense area  of  subsidence,  with  some  few  excep- 
tions, and  that  the  reefs  there  seen  are  memorials 
of  high  parts  of  the  continent  which  formerly  ex- 
isted there.  The  reefs  are  of  three  kinds — barrier, 
fringing,  and  atolls  (ring  islands).  Fringing  reefs 
are  those  which  surround  continents  and  islands, 
lying  close  to  the  shore,  with  no  signs  of  subsidence 
or  upheaval.  Barrier  reefs  are  those  which  either 
extend  along  a  coast  line  at  some  distance  from  it, 
such  as  the  barrier  reef  of  North-western  Austra- 
lia, 300  miles  long,  and  sometimes  70  miles  from 
the  coast,  or  surround  an  island  at  a  great  distance 
from  the  shore,  such  as  the  reef  which  surrounds 
New  Caledonia,  so  far  from  it  that  the  mainland  is 
invisible  therefrom.  The  atolls  have  been  already 
described. 

Now  it  remains  to  enquire,  to  which  class  of  reefs 
should  the  crag  coralline  formation  be  referred?  It 
is  obvious  that  very  little  of  the  original  form  can 
be  traced  from  the  rocks  themselves,  and  therefore 


128  EVIDENCE    OF    SUBSIDENCE. 

our  conclusion  must  be  drawn  from  analogy  rather 
than  from  any  other  source ;  and  thus  it  is  to  be 
inferred  that  what  we  witness  is  not  so  much  the 
peculiar  result  of  one  or  two  coral  reefs,  but  the 
remains  of  a  coral  sea  of  various  reefs  spread  over 
a  wide  area,  much  as  the  coral  sea  of  the  Pacific 
is  at  present.*  Now,  if  the  bed  of  the  Pacific 
were  suddenly  to  be  upheaved,  so  as  to  expose  a 
sectional  view  of  the  rock  which  has  been  form- 
ing there  during  the  existence  of  the  present  sea, 
what  should  we  perceive?  A  very  white  lime- 
stone rock,  fine-grained  and  soft,  containing  broken 
branches  of  the  Madrepora  abrotano'ides,  Mcean- 
drina  dcedalcea,Porites  clavaria,  and  other  branched 
corals,  while  large  Pectens,  Chamce,  Astrcea,  and 
various  fishes'  teeth,  would  be  scattered  through 
the  mass  amid  Coralline,  Echini,  &c. 

We  should  find  deep  layers  of  these,  because  the 
strata  of  the  coral  mud  would  be  much  more  com- 
mon, and  cover  a  larger  area  than  the  reefs  them- 
selves, and  these  latter  would  have  become  nearly 
obliterated,  as,  in  the  course  of  time,  their  dimen- 
sions gradually  contracted.  The  fossils  we  possess 
in  the  strata  now  noticed,  and  the  conclusions  they 
lead  to,  instead  of  indicating  one  particular  reef, 
show  us  how  the  bottom  of  the  Pacific  would 
appear  if  now  examined,  and  allowance  made  for 
differences  of  time,  place,  and  species. 

But  how  are  we  to  account  for  the  absence  of 

*  It  is  to  be  remarked,  that  I  use  the  word  '  coral '  here  not  in  its 
strict  sense. 


EVIDENCE    OF   FORMER   REEFS.  129 

the  reefs  themselves  ?  This  has  for  some  time  been 
a  formidable  objection  to  the  reef  theory  of  Darwin. 
It  has  been  stated  that  no  soundings,  or  only  very 
deep  ones,  are  obtained  close  to  the  atolls.  Now, 
if  the  bottom  of  the  sea  were  to  be  suddenly  up- 
heaved, immense  coral  mountains  with  basins  on 
the  top  should  result  from  the  islands.  But, 
wherever  we  have  fossil  evidences  of  an  ancient 
coral  sea,  nothing  like  this  can  be  observed ;  on  the 
contrary,  in  the  Australian  coral  reef,  now  under 
consideration,  country  wonderfully  level  is  met  with. 
To  meet  this  difficulty,  it  must  first  be  remem- 
bered that  the  state  of  the  Pacific  maybe  something 
peculiar  to  our  era.  This  view  is  contrary  to  that 
which  supposes  all  the  phenomena  of  geology  to 
have  resulted  from  causes  like  those  even  now 
going  on  about  us.  But  we  may  question  the^ac- 
curacy  of  applying  the  principle  without  some 
modification.  We  may  ask,  Do  not  the  coal  periods, 
the  Wealden,  the  chalk,  the  crag,  point  to  a  peculiar 
modification  of  the  earth,  to  certain  kinds  of  ve- 
getable and  animal  life,  of  which  the  remarkable 
growth  of  atolls  is  an  instance  in  our  own  as  dis- 
tinct from  other  periods  as  the  animals  which  now 
build  them  are  distinct  from  similar  genera  in 
former  epochs? 

But,  even  waiving  this  explanation,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  the  bottom  of  a  coral  sea  is  never 
thus  suddenly  upheaved.  The  deposit,  after  slowly 
subsiding,  may  remain  stationary  long  before 
upheaval  takes  place  at  all.  It  would  then  be 


130      WHY   NO   EEMAINS    OF    REEFS    AEE   FOUND. 

submerged,  and  subject  to  the  action  of  the  ocean. 
This  would  stratify  and  wear  away  any  eminence, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  slow  rate  of  upheaval  which 
would  give  ample  time  for  aqueous  erosion  or 
denudation.  It  has  been  remarked,  that  the  atolls 
are  gradually  growing  smaller  as  the  bed  upon 
which  they  rest  is  subsiding.  Now,  if  this  be  the 
case,  a  time  must  come  when  they  are  reduced  to 
a  mere  peak,  and  then  the  animals  will  cease 
building.  The  subsidence  must  be  very  slow  for 
the  polypi  to  be  able  to  keep  pace  with  it,  and  so 
once  the  coral  was  dead  the  atoll  would  be  for  an 
immense  time  exposed  to  the  fresh  ravages  of  the 
ocean,  which  would  not  be  long  reducing  it  to  the 
level  of  the  rest  of  the  sea  bottom.  The  very  form, 
indeed,  of  atolls  shows  them  to  be  liable  to  rapid 
destruction,  once  the  building  operation  of  the 
Zoophytes  had  ceased.  Soundings  taken  close  to 
them  show  that  they  descend  in  the  form  of  a  very 
steep  narrow  cone;  and  to  find  such  in  existence 
after  long  submersion  beneath  the  sea  and  subse- 
quent slow  upheaval,  would  be  quite  unaccount- 
able, being  so  inconsistent  with  our  present  notions 
of  the  sea's  ravages,  and  we  should  have  to  frame 
some  hypothesis  why  the  ocean,  which  in  some 
places  tears  down  lighthouses,  rends  rocks,  and 
destroys  massive  and  gigantic  breakwaters,  should 
spare  such  a  fragile  structure  as  a  cone  of  dead 
coral.  For,  as  long  as  the  polype  lives,  it  can 
build  up  faster  than  the  waves  can  destroy;  but 
take  away  this  force  of  animal  life  from  the 


THE    SWEDE  S    FLAT.  131 

struggle,  and  it  is  not  difficult  to  see  with  whom 
the  victory  would  rest  in  the  end.  Yet,  in  spite  of 
these  observations  being  true,  we  might  meet  with 
such  remains.  The  hypothesis  might  be  in  the 
main  correct,  with  occasional  exceptions,  though 
what  follows  decides  little  either  way. 

Where  evidence  is  very  weak  it  is  almost  use- 
less to  adduce  it ;  but  it  may  be  of  some  service  to 
describe  two  basins  of  limestone  in  the  interior, 
which  it  is  just  barely  possible  may  be  relics  of 
atolls.  They  both  occur  in  the  Tatiara,  at  about 
120  miles  north  by  west  of  Mount  Gambier.  One 
is  called  the  Swede's  Flat,  and  will  be  described  at 
length  when  we  come  to  treat  of  caves.  It  is  a  flat 
plain,  like  a  dried-up  lake,  as  level  as  a  bowling- 
green,  fourteen  miles  long  by  two  broad,  and  com- 
pletely encircled  by  hills.  There  is  no  considerable 
declivity  outside  it,  but  the  soil  is  sandy  and  com- 
posed of  coralline  rock.  If  it  had  been  a  lake, 
there  would  be  some  traces  of  streams  by  which  it 
became  filled,  but  there  are  none.  It  never  retains 
water  on  its  surface,  in  consequence  of  large  holes 
which  drain  underground.* 

The  other  is  a  hill  about  three  miles  slightly  to 
the  west  of  the  southern  end  of  the  one  just 
described:  it  is  on  the  road  between  Kelly's  and 
Lawson's  stations,  and  is  called  the  Half-way  Gully. 
It  is  like  an  immense  crater,  with  a  break  on  one 
(the  eastern)  side,  as  if  for  the  passage  of  lava.  It 

*  The  level  of  the  bottom  of  this  flat  is  much  above  the  sur- 
rounding country. 

K  2 


132  PEOBABLE    KEMAINS    OF   ATOLLS. 

is  densely  covered  with  brushwood,  through  which 
the  coralline  limestone  peeps  from  time  to  time. 
Standing  on  its  edge,  the  depression  of  the  centre 
appears  about  half  a  mile  wide,  and  no  other  rock 
but  the  coralline  is  anywhere  visible.  There  is  no 
sudden  declivity  from  the  side,  but  the  same  scrub 
and  sand.  Probably  the  hill  is  over  a  thousand 
feet  high,  but  it  is  joined  to  the  range,  and,  there- 
fore, very  little  elevated  above  its  neighbours. 
There  are  only  two  things  to  which  it  could  be 
compared  —  a  crater,  or  an  ancient  atoll ;  and,  as 
there  are  no  trap  rocks  within  miles,  we  might, 
though  perhaps  on  weak  evidence,  suppose  it  to 
have  been  the  latter. 

In  the  next  chapter  will  be  described  some  of 
the  vicissitudes  which  happened  to  our  reefs,  after 
their  burial  in  the  bed  of  the  ocean,  which  indicate 
that  its  upheaval  was  neither  very  rapid  nor  very 
soon  after  the  submersion  of  the  reef ;  what  has 
been  said  will,  however,  be  sufficient  to  prove  that 
we  may  regard  the  Australian  formation  as  the 
result  of  a  former  coral  sea,  without  expecting  to 
find  the  remains  of  either  barriers,  reefs,  or  atolls. 
Let  it  be  further  remarked,  that  if  it  would  appa- 
rently require  an  immense  layer  of  time  to  destroy 
all  trace  of  the  structures  to  which  the  beds  owed 
their  origin,  at  least,  it  would  be  far  less  than  is 
ordinarily  required  to  account  for  geological  ope- 
rations ;  and  that  while  thousands  of  years  would 
go  as  nothing  to  explain  the  coal  formation,  or 
the  upheaval  of  the  post-glacial  beds,  a  very  few 
thousand  years  would  be  sufficient  to  reduce  the 


THE    REEFS   PROBABLY    TO    THE    NORTH.  133 

strata  to  the  state  in  which  they  are  now  seen. 
It  has  been  already  mentioned,  that  a  thick 
stratum  of  limestone,  without  fossils,  is  generally 
the  uppermost  bed,  and  this  may  have  been 
derived  from  the  wearing  down  of  the  reef,  and 
the  rearrangement  of  the  upper  part  of  the  beds. 
The  absence  of  this  deposit  in  certain  places  does 
not  affect  the  general  argument,  that  its  absence 
was  rather  the  exception  than  the  rule. 

I  should  imagine  that  the  reefs  must  have 
existed  more  to  the  northern  part  of  the  present 
formation.  This  might  be  supposed  from  the 
greater  warmth  of  the  climate,  which  would  be 
more  favourable  to  such  growths.  Besides,  the 
fact  is  apparent  in  the  strata.  The  farther  south 
they  are  traced,  fossils  become  less  frequent,  more 
broken,  and  the  corals  are  much  fewer.  At  Pert- 
land  Cliffs,  as  I  have  already  said,  corals  are  very 
rare,  shells  uncommon,  and  much  broken,  while 
the  limestone  is  more  like  the  dried  white  mud 
already  frequently  alluded  to.  At  Mount  Gambier 
(distant  seventy-three  miles),  corals  are  more  com- 
mon and  less  broken,  shells  of  frequent  occurrence, 
while  sharks'  teeth  (  Oxyrrhinus  Woodsii)  are  abun- 
dantly distributed.  At  Mosquito  Plains  (seventy 
miles  from  Mount  Gambier  to  the  place  referred  to 
here),  the  corals  are  the  predominating  fossils,  and 
are  very  perfect,  preserving  all  their  beautiful  mani- 
festations with  little  or  no  breakage,  and  often  up- 
right in  the  position  in  which  they  grew.  At  the 
Murray,  the  fossils  are  principally  shells  of  large 
univalves  and  bivalves  (the  former  principally 


134          EVIDENCE    OF    TRANSPOKT    OF   FOSSILS. 

Turritellidce)  showing  a  much  more  tropical  fauna, 
though  the  coral  is  not  uncommon,  with  a  greater 
variety  of  species.  I  do  not  know  of  any  place 
where  the  variations  of  temperature  can  be  traced 
better  than  in  this  district,  and  the  approach  to 
warmer  latitudes  is  as  clearly  marked  in  the  fossils 
as  the  approach  to  the  snow  line  or  a  mountain  is 
marked  by  the  flora. 

It  is  not  often  we  have  an  immense  formation 
left  undisturbed,  so  that  we  can  journey  from  one 
end  to  the  other,  and  speculate  on  the  exact  tem- 
perature which  prevailed,  by  a  comparison  with 
the  present  habitat  of  similar  species.  Whether 
there  is  any  great  variation  from  what  at  present 
obtains,  can  only  be  gathered  from  a  more  minute 
examination  of  the  faunae  than  I  have  been  able  to 
afford  them.  That,  however,  the  mean  temperature 
of  the  sea  has  been  greater  than  what  it  now  is  near 
the  same  places,  there  can  be  no  doubt;  but  this 
does  not  necessarily  imply  that  the  mean  tempera- 
ture of  the  earth  was  greater.  Everyone  is  aware 
how  much  the  warmth  of  a  climate  or  a  sea  is 
dependent  on  the  distribution  of  land  in  the 
vicinity.  Thus,  the  current  of  water  from  a  tro- 
pical latitude  may  be  turned  aside  by  a  peculiar 
conformation  of  the  coast,  and  so  carry  a  sea  of 
almost  tropical  temperature  into  a  temperate  zone. 
Such  really  happens  in  the  Bermudas  (the  only 
extra-tropical  locality  where  coral  reefs  flourish), 
where  the  Gulf  Stream  keeps  up  a  very  high  tem- 
perature ;  and,  as  in  this  part  of  Australia,  the 


SUBSIDENCE.  135 

land  may  have  been  so  disposed  near  what  was 
then  the  coral  sea,  that  a  very  high  temperature 
was  kept  up. 

It  is  perhaps  useless  to  speculate  where  the  land 
was  at  this  time,  but  we  may  at  least  offer  some 
suggestions  which  bear  slightly  on  the  question. 

A  large  area  of  the  bed  of  the  Pacific  is  known  to 
be  subsiding,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  an  immense 
portion  of  the  continent  of  Australia  is  known  to 
be  uprising.  If  what  we  know  to  have  been  sea 
during  the  Crag  and  probably  Post-Pleiocene  period 
was  subsiding,  was  the  present  subsiding  area  of 
the  Pacific  a  continent?  What  would  be  its  posi- 
tion if  it  were  so?  It  has  been  observed  that  it  is 
mostly  within  the  tropics.  Now,  Sir  Charles  Lyell 
has  beautifully  shown  in  his  '  Principles  of  Geology ' 
that  a  distribution  of  land  exclusively  within  the 
tropics  would  have  given  rise  to  a  temperature 
perhaps  beyond  human  endurance.  Even  suppos- 
ing that  the  land  was  not  exclusively  within  these 
limits,  a  large  tract  of  land,  equal  to  the  present 
coral  sea,  would  have  materially  affected  the  tem- 
perature of  our  extinct  sea,  and  amply  account  for 
the  existence  of  our  almost  tropical  shells  in  tem- 
perate latitudes.  It  is  true  that  even  in  the  coral 
sea  there  are  occasional  periods  of  upheaval  at  pre- 
sent, but  these  are  very  small,  and  do  not  affect  the 
general  position  that  a  large  tract  is  subsiding. 

It  would  be  a  very  curious  phenomenon,  if  it 
were  proved  that  the  upheaval  of  one  part  of  the 
earth's  surface  was  compensated  by  the  subsidence 


136  SUBSIDENCE. 

of  another.  It  would  show  a  regularity  in  such 
movements  that  might  eventually  prove  them,  to 
result  according  to  a  fixed  law.  I  have  always 
been  of  opinion  that  disturbance  of  the  kind  was 
less  common  and  more  general  in  the  Southern 
than  in  the  Northern  hemisphere,  but  this  is  little 
more  than  opinion.  At  the  same  time,  the  multi- 
tude of  different  strata  in  Europe,  the  small  area 
they  occupy,  and  the  marks  of  upheaval,  contor- 
tion, and  breaks  at  almost  every  step,  while  large 
undisturbed  tracts  exist  in  South  America  and 
Australia,  would  seem  to  confirm  the  opinion. 

I  cannot  close  this  chapter  without  alluding  to 
a  train  of  thought  into  which  I  have  been  led  while 
studying  these  rocks. 

The  three  great  periods  into  which  fossiliferous 
rocks  have  been  divided  are  characterised  by  dis- 
tinct predominance  of  one  kind  of  animal  life. 
Thus,  the  Palaeozoic  rocks  have  been  characterised 
as  the  age  of  sauroids,  fishes,  and  articulata;  the 
Secondary — reptiles,  marsupials,  and  cephalopo- 
dous  mollusca;  the  Tertiary — pachydermata,  and 
by  a  gradual  approach  to  what  the  earth  is  now.  It 
is  not  pretended  that  no  other  living  things  existed, 
but  that  these  predominated,  and,  though  great 
additions  may  hereafter  be  made  to  our  list,  by  the 
discovery  of  new  animals,  it  will  not  affect  the 
general  proposition,  that  a  peculiar  class  of  animal 
life  was  more  common  in  one  period  than  another. 
It  has  been  further  observed,  by  many  geologists, 
but  more  especially  by  the  late  Hugh  Miller,  that 


GEOLOGICAL   THEORIES.  137 

a  gradation  in  creation  may  be  traced,  in  the  three 
enumerated  periods,  where  a  series  of  less  perfect 
organisations  seem  gradually  to  prepare  for  higher 
creatures. 

It  should  here  be  remarked,  that  when  the  term 
'  less  perfect '  is  used,  it  is  not  meant  to  be  accepted 
literally.  All  God's  works  are  equally  perfect, 
and  there  is  as  much  room  for  wonder  and  admira- 
tion at  the  perfection  of  design  in  the  simplest 
plants  as  there  is  in  the  most  complicated  animal; 
but  what  is  meant  is,  that  some  organisations  are 
less  complex,  or  have  less  special  adaptations  than 
others.  Thus,  the  simple  Acalephce,  or  jelly-fish, 
perform  the  functions  of  respiration,  absorption, 
assimilation,  and  circulation,  in  the  mass  generally, 
and  each  function  is  performed  perfectly,  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  animal.  In  a  warm-blooded 
animal  these  functions  have  all  special  organs,  such 
as  the  lungs,  the  lymphatics,  the  stomach,  the  heart. 
These  are  more  complex,  but  not  more  perfect, 
or  fit  the  animal  better  to  fulfill  the  end  of  its 
creation. 

But  there  has  been  (so  geologists  tell  us,  admit- 
ting their  knowledge  to  be  very  imperfect  and 
unsatisfactory  as  yet)  a  developement  from  the 
earlier  periods  of  an  approach  to  a  more  complex 
organisation,  which  ended  in  Man.  Thus,  in  the 
sauroid  period,  the  kind  of  animal  most  common 
was  one  with  a  very  low  cerebral  developement,  an 
imperfect  respiratory  system,  a  heart  with  only  one 
auricle  and  ventricle,  and  whose  ova  were  extruded 


138  GEOLOGICAL   THEORIES. 

in  the  most  elementary  state,  germinating  and  de- 
veloping themselves  quite  distinct  from  the  parent. 
Birds  were  also  common  in  this  period,  and  these, 
though  possessed  of  a  complete  respiratory  and 
circulating  system,  are  of  a  very  low  cerebral  de- 
velopement,  and  the  young  are  born  in  a  most 
embryonic  state.  The  Articulata  common  to  this 
epoch  are  low  in  the  scale  of  animal  organisation. 
Fishes  give  way 'to  Reptiles,  whose  respiration  is  by 
lungs,  whose  heart  contains  three  cavities,  whose 
ova  are  more  developed  than  those  of  fishes  (some 
are  viviparous,  e.g.  land  salamander).  Articulata 
give  way  to  Cephalopoda,  the  most  highly  organ- 
ised of  the  Mollusca.  Lastly,  the  first  Mammalia 
appear,  but  these  of  a  very  low  organisation ;  for 
the  only  ones  that  have  been  found  have  been 
proved  to  be  marsupial,  and  these  are  animals  only 
one  degree  removed  from  birds.  Their  cerebral  de- 
velopement  is  low  (the  corpus  callosum  being  most 
rudimentary,  and  the  convolutions  of  the  brain 
entirely  absent),  while  their  young  are  developed 
distinct  from  the  mother,  being  born  in  a  merely 
embryonic  state.  Finally,  in  the  tertiary  period 
we  see  the  highest  developement  which  the  animal 
world  has  undergone  up  to  the  time  of  man's 
creation.  The  commencement  is  seen  in  the 
earlier  strata  becoming  gradually  more  numerous 
up  to  our  own  period. 

Now,  it  has  been  remarked  by  some  geologists, 
that,  from  the  fossil  flora  and  fauna  of  Europe, 
during  the  Pleiocene  period,  a  state  of  things  must 


GEOLOGICAL   THEORIES.  139 

have  prevailed  there  very  similar  to  what  obtains 
in  -America  now.  So  that  America  is,  in  reality, 
in  her  Pleiocene  period,  or  one  geological  period 
behind  the  Old  World.  This  principle  is  of  course 
meant  to  be  accepted  in  a  modified  way,  for  there 
must  be  a  great  admixture  in  the  living  animals 
and  plants  between  it  and  those  which  now  tenant 
Europe.  But,  as  a  general  principle,  it  has  been 
stated  as  possessing  some  truth,  and  several  re- 
markable facts  in  accordance  have  been  given. 

Now,  with  regard  to  Australia,  I  wish  to  enunciate 
a  similar  principle  (not  orginated  entirely  by  me), 
of  course  subject  to  many  limitations,  though  less 
than  what  are  required  for  America,  and  deci- 
dedly more  marked  in  character.  I  believe  that 
the  present  state  of  this  part  of  Australia  is  very 
similar  to  what  Europe  was  immediately  after- the 
secondary  period,  and  that  really,  in  regard  to  the 
developement  of  its  fauna  and  flora,  this  continent 
is  far  behind  the  rest  of  the  world.  The  position 
of  Australia  renders  it  less  liable  to  an  admixture 
of  its  species  with  those  of  other  continents,  and, 
therefore,  its  natural  history  is,  to  a  certain 
extent,  peculiar  to  itself. 

In  the  flora,  the  correspondence  to  the  secondary 
period  is  well  marked.  There  the  Araucarice,  so 
common  to  the  secondary  rocks,  are  represented, 
and  these  are  only  found  in  Norfolk  Island  and 
Australia.  There  are  the  Zamice  and  Arthrozamice, 
found  only  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  Aus- 
tralia, being  closely  allied  to  species  found  in 


140  GEOLOGICAL    THEORIES. 

secondary  deposits.  There  are  likewise  plants 
which,  though  not  connected  botanically  with  the 
mesozoic  flora,  bear  a  striking  resemblance  to  them, 
and  these  are  the  Xanthorrhcece,  which  abound  in 
all  the  continent.  If  we  may  judge  from  the  few 
specimens  which  have  been  preserved  to  us  from 
secondary  rocks,  the  flora  was  not  abundant  there, 
and  in  this  particular  our  country  resembles  it; 
for  the  general  character  of  the  country  is  most 
decidedly  barren,  more  especially  in  those  places 
where  the  strata  I  have  been  describing  are  found. 
Then,  with  regard  to  the  Mammalia,  no  indigenous 
animals  have  been  found  distinct  from  the  Marsu- 
pialia,  except  rodents,  and  one  or  two  species  about 
whose  introduction  doubts  have  been  entertained. 
The  rodents  are  an  order  which  has  many  affinities 
with  marsupials,  and  one  species  occurs  where  the 
characters  are  interchanged, — the  Phascolomys. 
Our  birds,  though  beautiful,  are  comparatively  few 
in  number,  and  even  these  not  all  peculiar  to  our 
country.  And,  lastly,  there  are  no  secondary  rocks 
found  in  Australia,*  but  a  great  portion  of  the 
country  appears  to  have  been  recently  raised  from 
the  sea,  where  it  has  undergone  a  state  of  things 
very  similar  to  our  chalk ;  while  the  immense  tracts 
of  desert  country,  and  the  large  portions  that  are 
quite  unavailable,  indicate  a  territory  less  adapted 


*  In  the  '  Geological  Society's  Journal'  for  May  I860,  there  is  a 
letter  from  Mr.  Selwyn  to  Sir  R.  Murchison.  In  this  it  is  stated  that 
two  fossils  have  been  found,  which  Professor  M'Coy  thinks  to  be 
decidedly  belonging  to  the  chalk. 


GEOLOGICAL   THEORIES.  141 

for  the  habitation  of  man  than  any  tract  of  land 
of  similar  size  on  the  face  of  the  earth. 

The  following  passage  from  MantelPs  '  Wonders 
of  Geology'  is  directly  confirmatory  of  the  pre- 
vious statement.  Speaking  of  the  Wealden  strata, 
he  says: — '  Nor  can  we  resist  the  conviction,  that 
not  only  did  the  same  terrestrial  area,  however 
modified  it  must  have  been  during  the  long 
succession  of  ages,  supply  the  debris  of  an 
almost  unchanged  system  of  animal  and  vege- 
table life  to  the  Jurassic  seas  at  first,  and 
subsequently  to  the  cretaceous  ocean,  but  that 
also  the  fauna  and  flora  of  this  ancient  land, 
of  the  secondary  epoch,  had  many  important 
features  which  now  characterise  Australia.  The 
Stonesfield  marsupials  and  the  Purbeck  plagiau- 
lax  are  allied  to  genera  now  restricted  to  ^Tew 
South  Wales  and  Tasmania,  and  it  is  a  most 
interesting  fact,  as  Professor  Phillips  was  first  to 
remark,  that  the  organic  remains  with  which  these 
relics  are  associated  also  correspond  with  the  exist- 
ing forms  of  the  Australian  continent  and  neigh- 
bouring seas;  for  it  is  in  those  distant  latitudes 
that  the  waters  are  inhabited  by  Cestracions,  Tri- 
gonice,  and  Terebratulce,  and  that  the  dry  land  is 
clothed  with  araucarise,  tree  ferns,  and  cycadeous 
plants.' 

We  have  no  means  of  knowing  what  was  the 
state  of  the  earth  after  the  secondary  period  in 
Europe ;  but,  knowing  the  conformation  of  the  un- 
derlying rock,  and  knowing  that  it  is  of  a  kind 


142  GEOLOGICAL    THEORIES. 

that  must  give  rise  to  a  sandy  soil,  taking,  perhaps, 
ages  before  a  good  loam  could  be  formed  upon  it, 
and  knowing,  further,  its  generally  level  character, 
there  must  have  been  a  state  of  things  after  its 
upheaval  not  very  different  from  what  is  now  ob- 
served in  Australia.  The  absence  of  secondary 
rocks  in  the  continent,  as  far  as  it  has  been  yet  ex* 
plored,  is  certainly  remarkable ;  and  though  negative 
evidence  must  not  be  relied  on,  still  sufficient  of  the 
colonies  is  known  to  make  their  absence  a  matter 
of  some  certainty.  Abundance  of  the  rocks  formed, 
i.e.,  metamorphic  slates,  schists,  eurites,  porphyries, 
and  granites,  are  found  principally  on  elevated 
tracts  or  mountain  ridges.  Trap  rocks  are  common, 
mostly  in  Victoria.  Silurian  slates  have  been 
found,  I  believe,  in  all  the  colonies,  as  well  as  the 
old  red  sandstone  coal  measures  (excepting  in 
South  Australia),  and  in  some  places  the  new  red. 
But  after  these  there  is  a  great  hiatus,  and  the 
tertiary  rocks  are  the  only  continuation  that  we 
have. 

Now,  I  do  not  mean  to  say,  when  I  state  that 
Australia  has  gone  through  a  period  corresponding 
to  the  Secondary  in  Europe,  that  there  is  a  blank  in 
the  geological  history  of  the  continent,  or  that  our 
primary  corresponds  to  the  secondary  elsewhere. 
There  may  be,  for  all  we  know,  mesozoic  rocks  un- 
derneath our  cainozoic,  though  it  is  not  probable, 
or  Australia  may  have  been  a  group  of  islands  or 
a  continent  during  all  that  time.  Perhaps  it  would 
be  better,  to  prevent  misapprehension,  and  to  avoid 


GEOLOGICAL   THEORIES.  143 

the  infinite  limitation  which  a  more  general  prin- 
ciple would  require,  by  stating,  that  no  more  is 
meant  in  the  above  facts  than  this, — that  the  state 
of  things  now  seen  in  Australia  bears  a  strong  ana- 
logy to  what  Europe  must  have  been  at  the  close  of 
the  mesozoic  epoch,  and  that,  in  accordance  with 
this,  Australia,  in  its  natural  history,  is  far  behind 
in  developement  to  any  other  part  of  the  known 
earth. 

If  any  further  speculation  on  the  subject  should 
cause  the  principle  to  be  more  strictly  applied,  the 
cause  of  science  will  be  more  benefited  that  way 
than  by  stating  too  much  in  the  first  instance. 
Not  to  conceal,  however,  any  fact  which  might 
militate  against  my  view,  it  must  be  mentioned 
that  the  fossil  remains  of  a  lion  and  of  a  native 
dog  (supposed  at  onetime  to  have  been  introduced) 
prove  that  until  recently  these  animals  flourished 
as  indigenous  to  the  soil. 

If  the  above  principle  be  true,  it  gives  rise  to  one 
important  consideration.  There  are  some  who,  when 
they  discover  a  sequence  in  creation,  do  not  trouble 
themselves  to  enquire  why  the  Almighty  chose  such 
and  such  a  plan  in  following  it  out ;  they  look 
upon  each  part  as  of  necessity  belonging  to  the 
whole,  and  they  would  seem  to  infer  that,  because 
God  adopted  a  certain  gradation,  no  deviation  was 
possible.  Something  of  this  kind  is  to  be  traced 
in  an  otherwise  able  work,  entitled  '  Yestiges  of 
Creation,'  and  many  other  works  on  creation  imply 
the  doctrine,  that  if  the  motive  of  the  earth's  crea- 


144  GEOLOGICAL    THEORIES. 

tion  were  to  prepare  a  habitation  for  man,  all  that 
went  before  manifestly  tended  to  this,  and  at  no 
other  geological  period  than  at  present  could  he 
have  existed.  Undoubtedly  the  present  period  is 
better  for  man  than  any  which  went  before,  as  far 
as  we  know,  but  it  is  far  from  being  impossible  for 
him  to  have  existed  previously.  The  very  fact  that 
man  finds  an  easy,  nay,  comfortable,  subsistence  in 
Australia,  which,  whether  my  principle  be  admitted 
or  not,  is  far  behind  other  countries  in  natural  de- 
velopement,  proves,  on  the  one  hand,  the  perfect 
adaptability  of  the  earth  as  a  residence  for  man  at 
other  periods — besides  our  small  conception  of  the 
plans  of  the  Creator;  while,  on  the  other,  the  better 
adaptation  of  the  other  parts  of  the  earth,  more  ad- 
vanced and  developed,  proves  the  beneficence  of 
the  Author  of  it  all  in  perfecting  man's  habitation 
to  the  highest  degree  before  He  placed  him  upon  it. 
We  may,  however,  say,  that  speculations  which 
threaten  large  conclusions  are  best  not  made  when 
they  militate  against  certain  truths  (i.e.  revealed) 
on  such  weak  evidence  as  the  negative  evidence  of 
geology.  A  limited  amount  of  reflection  will  show 
how  very  small  a  portion  of  the  earth's  products 
get  buried  in  marine  or  fresh- water  strata ;  and  yet 
how  small,  how  very  small,  a  portion  of  even  these 
do  we  know, — how  little,  out  of  such  a  mass,  can  a 
few  quarries,  a  few  wells,  a  few  mines  or  excava- 
tions, tell  us !  What,  then,  is  the  value  of  such 
theories  as  those  which  rest  on  the  absence  of  our 
knowledge  for  their  principal  argument? 


GEOLOGICAL    THEORIES.  145 

When  we  contemplate  the  vicissitudes  to  which 
the  earth  has  been  subject,  we  cannot  help  tracing 
a  progress  and  civilisation  in  nature  similar  to  what 
men  pretend  to  in  history.  An  ungenial  soil  has 
arisen  from  a  recently -raised  tract  of  land,  and  this, 
again,  only  supports  a  most  meagre  amount  of  ani- 
mal life,  not  only  few  in  numbers,  but  low  in  the 
scale  of  vital  organisation.  What  a  difference 
would  have  resulted  from  a  different  fauna  is  told 
by  the  experience  of  those  who  have  kept  sheep 
and  cattle  stations,  who  say  that  every  year  after 
their  introduction  sees  an  improvement.  As  it  was, 
however,  prior  to  the  entrance  of  the  white  race, 
while  nature  toiled  towards  a  better  state  of  things, 
the  land  was  ill  adapted  as  a  residence  for  man. 
Human  nature  actually  languished  in  many  parts 
of  it,  that  is,  were  driven  to  means  of  subsistence 
badly  adapted  to  support  life.  Captain  Sturt  men- 
tions that  the  natives  of  the  interior  depended 
almost  entirely  on  the  grass-seed  for  their  support, 
and  even  these  sometimes  failed,  so  that  they  were 
met  with  in  a  most  emaciated  condition.  The  same 
author  also  mentions,  in  his  account  of  the  journey 
to  the  Darling  in  1828,  which  was  a  season  of  great 
drought,  that  most  of  the  natives  were  nearly 
starved,  a  whole  tribe  having  to  subsist  on  the  gum 
they  collected  from  the  bark  of  the  wattle-tree.  It 
would  appear  that  Australia  is  subject  to  periodi- 
cally dry  seasons,  and  that  then  the  natives  of 
the  interior  suffer  fearful  privations,  and  become 
subject  to  contagious  disorders.  But  this  does  not 

L 


146  BARRENNESS   OF   AUSTRALIA. 

interfere  with  the  fact,  that  the  continent  can  sup- 
port human  life,  for,  in  spite  of  all  their  endurance, 
they  did  not  appear  to  be  diminishing  in  numbers 
until  the  white  race  came  among  them. 

It  is  true  that  distress  and  famine  only  occur 
among  the  natives  of  the  desert  part  of  the  country, 
while  those  in  the  better  lands  near  the  coast  and 
mountains  lead  a  more  comfortable  life.  But  the 
state  of  the  soil  and  the  country  generally  has 
a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  fact,  that  the  abo- 
rigines of  Australia  are,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Fuegians,  the  most  degraded,  the  most  helpless 
race  on  the  face  of  the  earth. 

In  conclusion,  let  it  be  added,  that  if  this  country 
ever  becomes  great  among  nations,  it  will  not  be 
owing  to  the  possession  of  many  natural  advan- 
tages. It  is  melancholy  to  look  upon  the  map,  and 
think  of  the  immense  tract  of  soil  that  must  ever 
be  useless  to  man.  A  bright  future  may  be  in  store 
for  some  places,  it  has  already  dawned  upon  others, 
but  to  think  of  the  vast  deserts,  sometimes  bor- 
dering close  on  the  comparatively  small  tract  of 
agricultural  land,  leaves  but  little  hopefulness  for 
the  greater  part  of  the  continent.  There  is  room, 
however,  for  years  to  come,  for  settlers,  on  spots  as 
rich,  perhaps,  as  any  the  earth  affords.  But  from 
the  interior  we  turn  in  a  despair  like  that  of  Captain 
Sturt,  who,  when  he  had  penetrated  to  the  farthest 
point  ever  reached  by  the  European,  stood  upon  a 
mound  of  sand  gazing,  as  he  said,  upon  an  expanse 
unequalled  in  the  world  for  barrenness  and  deso- 
lation. 


CONCLUSION.  147 

We  gain,  from  time  to  time,  some  trifling  increase 
to  our  knowledge  of  its  aridity,  but  all  our  know- 
ledge results  in  this,  that  we  know  it  never  will  be 
a  home  for  man — that  all  our  efforts  at  its  explo- 
ration have  been  baffled,  and  the  explorers  sent 
back  sickened  and  exhausted — that  the  bones  of 
one  of  a  finely  equipped  party,  led  on  by  an 
indefatigable  genius,*  now  whiten  on  some  part 
of  its  arid  expanse. 

*  Leichardt. 


NOTE  TO  CHAPTER  V. 

Since  the  above  was  written,  Mr.  Stuart  has  succeeded  in  reaching 
the  centre  of  the  continent,  and  had  nearly  crossed,  when  he  was 
driven  back  by  the  natives.  He  has  started  again  with  a  party  of 
thirteen  men.  The  loss  of  Burke  and  Wills  will  be  also  fresh  -ia  the 
memory  of  all. 

I  have  lately  heard  that  the  bones  of  an  extinct  hyaena  have  been 
found  in  a  cave  here.  This  is  very  doubtful.  Large  bones  were  also 
found  in  some  clay  which  fell  away  from  the  banks  round  Lake  Colac. 
I  could  never  ascertain  what  they  were,  nor  what  ultimately  became 
of  them.  If  the  banks  round  these  lakes  owed  their  origin  to  a  pro- 
cess similar  to  the  banks  round  lakes  described  in  the  last  chapter, 
they  must  have  been  land  animals  or  amphibious  reptiles  to  have  be- 
come imbedded  in  them.  I  am  assured,  however,  by  those  who  saw 
them,  that  they  were  much  too  large  for  any  kangaroo.  Could  it  be 
the  Bothriceps  australis,  described  by  Professor  Huxley  in  the  Geolo- 
gical Society's  Journal  ?  He  states  that  the  specimen  was  in  the 
British  Museum,  but  that  nothing  more  was  known  of  it  than  that  it 
came  from  Australia.  The  animal  is  a  reptile,  but  probably  not  geo- 
logically modern,  and  more  likely  came  from  a  sandstone  formation. 


148 


CHAPTER   VI. 
HOW   THE   KEEF   ENDED. 

CESSATION   OF    THE    CORALLINE    FORMATION. DESCRIPTION    OF 

UPPER    CRAG. EXTENT     OF     IT. DERIVED    FROM    AN    OCEAN 

CURRENT. GUICHEN     BAY     BEDS. ABSENCE     OF     FOSSILS    IN 

THEM. CAPE    GRANT    BEDS. STRATA    THERE     DESCRIBED. 

TRAP    ROCK   AND   AMYGDALA. SIMILARITY   OF  UPPER    BEDS   TO 

UPPER  CRAG    IN   ENGLAND. SINGULAR    FORMATION   NEAR    THE 

TRAP. LOCALITIES    WHERE    THE    UPPER    CRAG    IS    FOUND. 

BROKEN     FAUNA. REEFS     LEFT     OF    CRAG. CONCRETIONS. 

NOT     OWING     TO    CASTS    OF     TREES. DECOMPOSITION     OF     THE 

ROCK. BLOWHOLES.  —  DENUDATION   AND    UPHEAVAL. WHAT 

BECOMES   OF    DETRITUS. HISTORY    OF    THE    DEPOSIT. DENU- 
DATION.  CORALLINE    CRAG   OF     SUFFOLK. WATER-LEVEL. 

DEEP-SEA   SOUNDINGS. 

FROM  the  consideration  of  the  coral  beds  we 
pass  to  those  next  in  succession  above.  For- 
tunately, there  is  no  blank  in  the  geological  history 
of  the  country  now  treated  of.  What  we  next  find 
is  the  sequel  to  what  has  gone  before,  being  just, 
in  fact,  what  we  might  expect  would,  in  the  opera- 
tions of  nature,  succeed  the  formation  just  described. 
It  has  been  seen,  that,  during  the  building  of  the 
crag,  the  bed  of  the  sea  was  subsiding,  and  that 
before  the  subsidence  was  terminated,  or  at  least 
before  upheaval  commenced,  the  coral  animal  must 
have  ceased  building.  Many  things  might  have 
caused  the  destruction  of  the  zoophytes.  Either  a 
sudden  subsidence,  or  a  change  in  the  temperature 


NEW   DEPOSIT.  149 

of  the  waters,  or  the  advent  of  a  current  containing 
sediment.  That  this  latter  cause  is  fatal  to  the 
progress  of  reefs  is  proved  by  observation.  One  of 
the  causes  why  one  side  of  the  atolls  is  invariably 
broken  down  (a  circumstance  appealed  to  by  earlier 
geologists  in  favour  of  the  view  that  they  were  ex- 
tinct craters)  is  because  of  a  current  of  sediment  in 
that  direction  being  caused  by  the  prevailing  wind. 
In  fringing  reefs  the  parts  opposite  a  river  or  stream 
from  the  land  are  nearly  destitute  of  coral,  and  what 
is  near  them  is  always  dead.  Breaks  in  barrier 
reefs  are  traced  opposite  streams  in  the  land  which 
they  surround,  even  long  after  they  are  so  far  re- 
moved as  to  cease  to  be  affected  by  them.  All  or 
either  of  the  causes  above  enumerated  may  have 
combined  to  destroy  the  reefs  here  treated  of,  and 
probably  the  latter  bore  the  chief  part.  It  is  of  no 
moment  to  enquire  now  how  it  ceased  to  exist ;  of 
one  thing  we  are  certain,  and  that  is,  that  the  de- 
posit did  terminate  and  a  change  came.  This 
change  gave  rise  to  a  different  kind  of  rock,  and 
this  is  what  next  comes  for  our  consideration,  and 
forms  the  subject  of  the  present  chapter. 

Round  the  coast  (which,  as  before  stated,  prin- 
cipally consists  of  coralline  cliffs  or  hillocks) 
patches  of  a  different  kind  of  rock  from  the  white 
chalky  deposit  are  occasionally  seen.  At  times,  it 
forms  sea-cliffs  of  itself,  and  then  it  affords  a  good 
variety,  from  the  generally  uniform  white  coast 
line,  this  being  dark  brown  in  colour,  and  more 
compact  and  rugged  than  the  underlying  strata.  It 


150  ROCKS   AT   GUICHEN  BAY. 

is  found  more  or  less  all  round  the  coast  of  the 
colony  of  South  Australia,  and  perhaps  it  extends 
all  along  parts  of  the  Australian  Bight.  It  is  seen 
to  most  advantage  where  the  coast  is  bold,  and 
where  it  forms  cliffs ;  and,  as  a  better  idea  can  be 
gained  of  the  nature  of  the  formation  from  such 
localities,  I  shall  confine  myself  to  them  for  the 
present.  The  principal  places,  then,  where  the  rock 
is  observed  to  most  advantage  are  Guichen  Bay,  a 
port  on  the  South  Australian  coast,  between  the 
most  southerly  part  of  the  colony  and  the  Coorong, 
and  an  indentation  on  the  coast  between  Cape 
Bridgewater  and  Cape  Grant,  a  little  to  the  west  of 
Portland,  in  the  colony  of  Victoria.  The  whole 
eastern  and  northern  sides  of  Guichen  Bay  are 
composed  of  low  sand-hills,  scarcely  thirty  feet 
above  the  water-level,  but  on  the  southern  side  a 
change  takes  place.  The  sand  is  replaced  by 
rough  craggy  rocks,  which,  though  not  rising 
very  high,  are  bold  and  abrupt,  sometimes  pre- 
senting a  perpendicular  face  to  the  heavy  surf 
which  beats  upon  that  coast.  Seen  at  a  distance, 
one  would  imagine  that  these  rocks  were  divided 
only  into  larger  strata,  fourteen  or  sixteen  feet 
thick,  but,  on  a  closer  inspection,  another  kind 
of  stratification  is  discernible.  In  addition  to  the 
great  divisions,  which  are  so  distinct  that  one  could 
almost  suppose  that  they  were  huge  slabs  of  rock 
laid  upon  one  another,  there  is  cross  stratification. 
This  is  a  lamination  which  divides  the  beds  into 
strata  about  two  inches  thick,  but  they  are  never 


ROCKS   AT    GUICHEN   BAY.  151 

horizontal  like  the  real  strata,  are  scarcely  ever 
parallel,  and  never  continuous  across  the  great 
divisions  which  divide  one  bed  from  another. 

Now,  all  these  appearances  taken  in  connection 
with  the  mineral  character  now  to  be  described, 
are  clearly  indicative  of  an  ocean  current.  Any- 
one conversant  with  the  elements  of  geology  will 
not  require  to  be  told  why  this  conclusion  follows, 
from  the  facts  above  stated.  It  will  be  sufficient 
to  say,  that  the  want  of  horizontality  in  the  smaller 
strata  is  due  to  some  disturbance  in  the  water 
from  which  they  were  deposited,  and,  as  they  bear 
in  one  particular  direction,  this  must  have  been 
owing  to  a  stream  which  deposited  particles  as  it 
flowed  along.  The  greater  divisions  are  caused 
by  an  alteration  in  the  direction  of  the  current, 
which,  before  it  would  deposit  any  new  matter, 
would  carry  away  the  lighter  superficial  particles, 
and  wear  down  to  a  smooth  surface  all  the  ine- 
qualities left  by  the  former  stream. 

If  there  were  any  doubt  about  this  theory,  it  is 
quite  removed  by  the  nature  of  the  rock.  We 
know  what  kind  of  matter  we  should  expect  to 
find  at  the  bottom  of  such  a  stream.  Their  course 
is  generally  slow,  and  therefore  only  small  frag- 
ments of  shells,  grains  of  sand,  and  fine  mud 
would  be  carried  by -them.  A  river  will  carry 
down  mud  from  the  banks,  and  fragments  of  wood, 
but  an  ocean  current,  which  generally  takes  its 
rise  in  deep  water,  can  only  have  the  detritus  of 
the  rocks  and  shells  it  has  acted  upon. 


152  HOCKS   AT    GUICHEN   BAY. 

The  material  of  the  rock  now  under  considera- 
tion would  appear,  at  first,  to  be  a  coarse-grained 
sandstone.     Under  the  microscope,  however,  it  is 
found  to  consist  of  small  particles  of  shells,  worn 
by  attrition  into  thin  scales,  and  small  grains  of  a 
quartzose  sand.     It  is  freely  acted  upon  by  acids, 
and,   with   the   necessary   reagents,    shows   great 
quantities  of  lime,  magnesia,  and  silica,  with  traces 
of  sesquioxide  of  iron  and  sulphate  of  lime,  but  no 
phosphates  nor  organic  matter.     There  are  no  fos- 
sils, excepting  in  a  few  places  which  I  shall  specify. 
From  these  facts,  therefore,  we  may  not  only  con- 
clude that  the  deposit  was  from  an  ocean  current, 
but  also  that  it  was  a  considerable  distance  from 
any   land ;    because,    coast    drifts    are    generally 
rather   rapid,    being    derived   from    large    rivers 
or  similar  causes,  while  those  far  from  land  seldom 
exceed  the  rate  of  three  miles  an  hour,  and  any- 
thing much  quicker  than  this  must  infallibly  have 
included  larger  particles  of  shells,  and  even  whole 
ones. 

Guichen  Bay  is  not  so  well  provided  with  this 
rock  as  a  small  inlet  at  the  south  side  of  Cape 
Lannes,  the  promontory  which  helps  to  form  the 
south-east  side  of  the  harbour.  Here  the  rocks 
are  seen  in  bold  section,  for  sometimes  the  cliffs 
are  nearly  a  hundred  feet  high. 

The  little  bay  is  very  deep,  so  that  the  water 
washes  the  cliffs  nearly  all  round.  In  some  places 
the  action  of  the  surf  has  undermined  them,  and 
caused  them  to  fall,  and  the  spray  has  eaten  into 


ROCKS   AT    GUICHEN   BAY.  153 

its  soft  friable  texture,  giving  parts  a  wild  and 
lagged  outline.  These  features,  and  the  singular 

J     OO  <-> 

cross  stratification  of  the  cliffs  that  have  escaped 
the  ravages  of  the  ocean,  the  dark  hue  of  the 
stone,  the  heaps  of  ruins  scattered  about  like  fallen 
castles,  and  the  boiling  of  the  heavy  surf,  which, 
even  in  the  calmest  day,  breaks  upon  the  rocks, 
make  a  sublime  scene,  which  for  wild  beauty 
would  be  unequalled  in  Australia,  were  it  on  a 
little  larger  scale.  Even  as  it  is,  however,  it 
reminds  one  of  the  bold  coasts  of  the  Highlands ; 
and  the  little  verdure  which  the  mesembryan- 
themums  give,  as  they  creep  down  the  surface  of 
the  rock,  or  hang  swaying  on  the  wind,  tends  little 
to  soften  its  desolate  and  savage  aspect. 

There  are,  as  I  have  stated,  no  fossils;  but  the 
summit  of  each  cliff  is  topped  by  a  stratum  of 
compact  limestone,  horizontally  disposed,  but  lying 
unconformably.  This,  I  presume,  is  a  relic  of 
the  last  coast  action,  before  the  deposits  were  up- 
heaved to  their  present  position ;  and  from  the  fact 
that  the  same  stone,  lying  in  the  same  manner 
farther  inland,  contains  marine  fossils  of  existing 
species,  I  have  no  doubt  that  it  is  of  the  same 
age  as  the  very  recent  beds  to  be  spoken  of  here- 
after, which  exist  all  round  the  coast. 

Let  us  turn  now  to  the  other  locality  spoken  of 
above,  as  possessing  the  same  beds.  This  is  the 
bay  (Grant  Bay)  between  Cape  Bridgewater  and 
Cape  Grant,  a  little  to  the  west  of  Portland  Bay. 
There  the  deposits  are  seen  to  greater  advantage, 


154  EOCKS   AT   CAPE    GRANT. 

and  on  a  larger  scale  ;  besides,  from  the  rocks 
associated  with  them,  we  are  able  to  decide  more 
positively  as  to  the  total  distinctness  of  the  forma- 
tion from  the  coral  reef.  The  bay  is  some  three 
or  four  miles  wide,  bounded  on  the  two  sides  by 
the  capes  above  mentioned,  which  are  fine  rocky 
headlands,  with  deep  water  at  these  very  places. 
The  whole  coast  of  the  inlet  is  very  precipitous, — 
so  much  so,  that  there  are  only  one  or  two  places 
where  you  can  descend  from  the  cliffs  on  to  the 
beach.  Seen  from  above,  the  appearance  of  the 
bay  is  peculiar;  because,  after  a  little  belt  of  sand, 
all  round  between  the  cliffs  and  the  water,  the  surf 
beats  in  amidst  a  confused  mass  of  large  black 
boulders,  much  corroded  by  the  action  of  the  sea, 
but  still  preserving  an  irregular  figure.  These 
are  trap  rocks,  or  a  very  vesicular  brownish-black 
basalt.  To  this  the  precipitous  coast  forms  a  great 
contrast,  being  the  yellowish-brown  stone,  precisely 
similar  to  what  is  found  in  Guichen  Bay,  but  it 
is  seen  to  be  based  on  the  same  basaltic  rock 
throughout  its  continuation. 

But  the  stratification  is  what  makes  it  most 
singular.  Not  only  are  the  minor  laminations 
quite  out  of  the  horizontal,  but  even  the  great 
divisions.  One  part  of  the  bay  looks  as  if  the 
strata  had  been  deposited  horizontally,  and  that 
afterwards  the  two  ends  had  been  upheaved  and 
pressed  close  together,  making  the  beds  almost  like 
the  letter  W,  only  a  little  more  rounded.  Most 
frequently,  however,  the  great  divisions  preserve 


ROCKS    AT    CAPE    GRANT.  155 

a  serpentine  line,  though,  in  places,  the  diagonal 
or  cross  stratification  is  alone  irregular,  the  rest 
preserving  a  uniform  horizontal  line. 

Descending  to  the  beach,  the  brittle  and  friable 
nature  of  the  stone  is  observed,  it  being  less  com- 
pact than  what  is  seen  at  Guichen  Bay,  and  this  is 
what  makes  the  descent  to  the  coast  so  difficult, 
for  the  mere  action  of  the  weather  has  eaten  away 
the  face  of  the  cliff,  making  the  summit  in  many 
places  overhang  the  base  by  many  feet.  The  rock 
is  of  the  same  texture  as  that  of  Guichen  Bay,  a 
calcareous  sandstone,  in  every  respect  similar  in 
appearance,  and,  like  it,  containing  no  fossils.  At 
first  sight,  one  would  be  induced  to  refer  the  con- 
torted appearance  of  the  beds  to  irregular  upheaval, 
which  has  twisted  them  and  bent  them  into  the 
inclined  position  they  hold  at  present.  But  this 
theory  is  quite  untenable.  Whatever  upheaval 
there  has  been  was  of  a  most  regular  kind,  and 
equal  in  its  operation. 

The  underlying  strata  are  in  no  way  disturbed, 
and  the  stratum  of  basalt  upon  which  the  sand- 
stone (or  upper  crag,  as  I  shall  term  it,)  rests,  is 
as  horizontal  as  the  sea.  The  only  way,  then,  of 
explaining  the  irregularity,  is  by  supposing  the 
current,  from  which  the  detritus  was  deposited,  to 
have  been  rather  strong  and  variable  at  this  place, 
giving  rise  to  shifting  sandbanks,  more  abrupt  in 
lorm,  and  more  liable  to  change  their  character,  at 
every  change  in  the  direction  of  the  stream. 

Perhaps,  again,  the  sea  was  shallower  here ;  and 


156          ROCKS  AT  CAPE  GRANT. 

just  as  there  are  sandbanks  along  the  coast,  with 
deep  soundings  round  them,  liable  to  change  their 
form  every  year,  so  these  beds  may  have  existed 
near  a  coast  and  been  subject  to  great  vicissitudes. 
The  layer  of  trap  upon  which  they  are  based 
affords  a  good  answer  to  a  difficulty  I  at  one  time 
felt  about  the  upper  crag,  as  I  shall  term  it  in 
future.  It  is  well  known  that  the  summit  of  dead 
coral  reefs  presents  an  appearance  very  similar  to 
the  detritus  borne  down  by  an  ocean  current. 
Thus,  in  Henderson's  Island,  described  by  Captain 
Beechy,  mention  is  made  of  its  being  an  upraised 
coral  island,  and  is  thus  described  by  Lyell: — '  It 
has  a  flat  surface,  and  on  all  sides,  except  the  rock, 
is  bounded  by  perpendicular  cliffs,  about  fifty  feet 
high,  composed  entirely  of  dead  coral,  more  or  less 
porous,  honeycombed  at  the  surface,  and  hardening 
into  a  compact  calcareous  mass,  which  possesses 
the  fracture  of  secondary  limestone,'*  &c. 

The  cliffs  are  considerably  undermined  by  the 
action  of  the  waves,  and  some  of  them  appear 
on  the  eve  of  precipitating  their  superincumbent 
weight  into  the  sea.  Now,  though  this  descrip- 
tion differs  from  the  deposit  under  consideration, 
inasmuch  as  it  speaks  of  dead  coral  interspersed 
through  the  mass,  yet  the  general  character  of  the 
rock  was  so  similar  that  there  was  some  possibility 
of  its  owing  its  origin  to  an  upheaval  of  the  coral 
rock  as  a  dead  mass.  Those  at  the  rim  of  the 
lagoon  in  Atoll  Islands  are  described  as  being  a 

*  Manual  of  Geology.    Fifth  edition. 


BASALTIC   ROCKS.  157 

mass  of  calcareous  sand,  heaped  together  with 
broken  shells  and  other  debris.  Of  course  the 
texture  of  the  crag  was  rather  against  such  a  sup- 
position, but  then  it  had  been  lying  immediately 
above  the  coral  rock,  and  sometimes  containing 
larger  portions  of  shells,  with  an  occasional  frag- 
ment of  what  appeared  to  be  coral,  only  too  much 
broken  to  be  certainly  classed  as  such.  The  only 
thing  that  could  settle  the  question  was  the  exist- 
ence of  some  intervening  rock,  which  would  show 
them  then  to  be  quite  distinct  from  one  another. 
This  was  found  in  the  stratum  of  trap  rock,  upon 
which,  as  I  have  already  said,  the  cliffs  of  crag  rest. 

At  one  time,  I  could  hardly  imagine  that  the 
trap  really  was  underneath,  because  at  Portland 
Bay,  a  short  distance  off,  basaltic  rocks  are  seen  on 
the  top  of  the  highest  cliffs,  and,  though  these  are 
of  coralline  rock,  yet,  as  there  are  extinct  volcanoes 
(Mount  Napier  and  Mount  Rouse)  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, I  imagined  that  the  trap  rock  was  lava, 
which  had  flowed  over  the  cliffs  at  Portland  into 
the  sea,  at  a  time  when  the  coast  had  assumed  its 
present  figure,  and  that  the  accumulation  at  Cape 
Bridgewater  was  what  had  flowed  to  the  bottom 
of  the  cliffs,  and  been  stopped  further  progress  by 
them. 

And  it  was  very  difficult  to  arrive  at  the  real 
conclusion,  because,  on  descending  into  the  bay 
now  described,  the  basalt  could  be  traced  to  the 
foot  of  the  other  rock,  and  then  seemed  discon- 
tinued, and  the  ordinary  limestone  took  its  place. 


58        TRAP  ROCKS  AT  CAPE  GRANT. 

But  a  minute  examination  showed  that  the  break 
in  the  strata  was  more  apparent  than  real.  What 
seemed  to  be  the  crag  was,  in  fact,  a  mere  coating 
of  limestone,  which  was  washed  down  by  the  rain 
and  by  nitration,  so  as  to  completely  cover  the 
trap  rock  underneath,  and  make  it  appear  like 
limestone.  A  very  little  digging,  however,  com- 
pletely removed  it,  so  as  to  show  the  vesicular 
volcanic  rock  beneath.  It  was  curious  to  remark 
how  the  lime  had  been  washed  down,  so  as  to  form 
a  sheet  of  stone  over  the  underlying  strata. 
This,  too,  was  done  much  in  the  same  way  that 
stalagmite  is  deposited  at  the  bottom  of  caves ;  and 
when  we  bear  in  mind  that  every  particle  of  the 
stone  must  have  been  dissolved  by  water  and  then 
redeposited,  no  moderate  amount  of  time  has  been 
consumed  in  forming  the  large  crust  of  stone  found 
in  the  bay  now  described. 

The  trap  is  quite  amygdaloidal,  that  is,  every 
one  of  the  vesicles  in  the  stone  has  been  filled  with 
crystallised  carbonate  of  lime,  rounded  in  the  form 
of  the  mould  in  which  they  occur,  and  of  a  trans- 
lucent yellow  colour.  Some  are  of  a  reddish  tint, 
from  the  presence  of  iron,  and  they  generally 
radiate  out  in  beautiful  acicular  crystals,  from  the 
centre  to  the  circumference;  but  more  commonly 
they  are  small,  and,  wherever  a  piece  of  the  rock  is 
broken  off,  it  appears  as  if  studded  all  over  with  mi- 
nute wax  lentils.  It  is  quite  extraordinary  how  the 
lime  filters  through  the  stone  to  form  crystals  in 
the  crevices.  Break  off  the  rock  where  you  will, 


TRAP   ROCKS   AT    CAPE    GRANT.  159 

and,  how  compact  soever  it  may  be,  the  centre  is 
sure  to  be  impregnated  with  lime. 

At  the  foot  of  the  trap  a  very  singular  formation 
is  seen.  The  sesquioxide  of  iron,  washed  from 
the  volcanic  rock,  has  acted  as  a  cement  to  large 
particles  of  shells,  rounded,  water-worn,  and  of 
large  size.  This  has  formed  a  conglomerate  of 
intense  tenacity.  The  fragments  which  protrude 
look  as  if  they  could  be  picked  off,  but  a  great 
exertion  of  strength  will  not  detach  them.  The 
shells  preserve  their  colour  in  most  instances,  and 
the  conglomerate  is  like  a  very  pretty  mass  of 
flower  petals.  Mr.  Darwin  mentions  a  similar 
deposit  as  occurring  at  Ascension  Island. 

To  return  to  the  upper  crag,  there  can  be  little 
doubt,  then,  that  it  is  quite  distinct  from  the  coral 
formation,  and  that  it  is  identical  with  the  deposit 
found  at  Guichen  Bay,  because  it  lies  like  it  directly 
over  the  crag  beds  and  under  a  hill,  hereafter  to  be 
shown  as  more  modern  deposit  occurring  in  both 
places. 

There  are  other  localities  in  which  the  same 
strata  are  found,  as,  for  instance,  on  the  coast  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Glenelg,  in  Victoria ;  again  at 
Rivoli  Bay,  south  of  Guichen  Bay;  at  Lacepede 
Bay,  to  the  north  of  the  same  place;  besides  on 
many  reefs  of  rocks  that  rise  out  from  the  coast, 
and  in  spots  here  and  there,  scattered  more  or  less 
all  over  the  district.  Some  of  these  latter  possess 
peculiarities  worthy  of  note.  They  are  generally 
on  rising  ground,  lying  immediately  above  the 


160  OTHER   LOCALITIES. 

coralline  strata.  This  position  clearly  shows  that 
other  parts  there  have  been  which  denudation 
has  removed,  and  the  texture  of  the  rock  itself, 
in  such  cases,  gives  the  reason  why  it  was  able  to 
resist  ravages  which  destroyed  the  continuance 
of  the  beds.  Thus,  at  Mount  Gambier,  at  the  edge 
of  a  deep  circular  chasm,  where  the  upper  part  of 
the  rock  has  fallen  into  a  hollow,  caused  by  the 
erosion  of  underground  streams,  there  is  a  good 
section  of  the  beds  exposed.  On  the  top  of  all  are 
seen  the  ashes  from  the  extinct  volcano  in  the 
vicinity;  underneath  is  this  deposit,  about  sixteen 
feet  in  thickness.  Its  appearance  at  a  distance 
would  lead  one  to  imagine  that  it  was  full  of  shells ; 
but  it  is  not.  There  is  nothing  but  a  mass  of  broken 
testacea,  so  confused  and  so  broken  that  I  have 
never  been  able  to  recognise  one  of  them,  with 
the  exception  of  a  large  Ostrcea.  The  face  of  the 
stone  is  perforated  on  all  sides  with  the  borings  of 
the  Lithodomi,  and  the  stratification  is  as  irregular 
as  running  water  could  make  it.  The  occurrence 
of  the  oyster-shells  made  it  doubtful  if  this  deposit 
did  not  belong  to  an  after-stage  of  the  coral  reef, 
distinct  from  these  strata,  because  there  is  on  the 
top  of  nearly  every  limestone  cliff,  which  has  not 
suffered  much  from  denudation,  a  bed  of  oyster- 
shells  united  with  a  few  other  fossils,  such  as  the 
asterite,  and,  what  is  not  singular,  considering  the 
date  of  the  beds,  clearly  established  by  other  fauna, 
a  Pecten  Jacobceus.  It  is  not  with  chalk  but  a 
ferruginous  yellow  clay.  It  is  seen  at  Portland 


NATUKE    OF    THE    DEPOSIT.  161 

(under  the  trap),  and  therefore  more  ancient  than 
the  upper  crag  at  the  top  of  the  Murray  cliffs,  and 
in  many  other  places  on  the  coast  and  inland. 
But  the  oyster-shell  bed  at  Mount  Gambier  really 
belongs  to  a  part  of  the  upper  deposit;  and  we 
must  therefore  conclude  that  that  fossil  extended 
to  both  beds.  I  should  think,  however,  that  the 
oyster- shell  bed  is  more  recent  than  the  coralline 
rock,  not  only  because  it  is  always  found  above, 
but  because  the  fauna  is  so  distinct.  Probably 
it  was  formed  previous  to  the  commencement  of 
deposition  from  the  ocean  current,  but  when  the 
coral  was  still  subsiding,  and  a  deep  sea  over  it. 
It  may  safely  be  said  that  the  deposit  must  have 
extended  over  a  large  area,  for  its  remains  are 
distributed  at  intervals  about  the  South-eastern 
District. 

We  have  now  before  us,  therefore,  a  series  of  re* 
mains  which  point  very  decidedly  to  the  existence, 
after  the  death  of  the  coral,  of  an  immense  sea 
bottom,  covered  by  deposition  from  an  ocean  stream. 
Before  any  conclusions  are  drawn  from  the  facts 
stated,  several  peculiarities  in  the  rock  must  be 
mentioned. 

In  the  first  place,  the  formation  is  one  which, 
from  the  description  I  have  already  given,  is 
perceived  to  vary  much  in  its  capability  for 
resisting  the  action  of  sea-water  and  the  atmo- 
sphere* The  consequence  is,  that  while  some  parts 
are  easily  washed  away  by  coast  action,  others 
become  compact  and  indurated.  This,  as  the 

M 


162  LIMESTONE    CONCRETIONS. 

upheaval  of  the  bed  has  proceeded,  has  given  rise 
to  reefs  of  rocks  far  out  to  sea,  the  more  dan- 
gerous because  they  are  rounded,  and  rarely  visible 
above  water.  The  coast  from  Rlvoli  Bay  to  Gui- 
chen  Bay  is  very  perilous  to  navigators  in  con- 
sequence, and  a  large  reef  of  rocks  to  the  north 
side  of  the  latter  (Cape  Jaffa  reef)  stretches  out 
to  sea  for  more  than  twelve  miles. 

The  appearance  of  these  rocks  is  very  peculiar. 
Of  some  only  a  small  pinnacle  is  spared,  which 
raises  itself  above  the  waves  like  a  channel  light- 
house ;  others,  again,  have  been  a  mass  of  table  rock, 
through  which  the  sea  has  worn  many  passages, 
giving  them  the  appearance  of  bridges ;  and  lastly, 
they  cluster  together  like  a  group  of  islands,  with 
flat  tops  and  precipitous  sides.  The  flatness  of  the 
summits  shows  that  they  have  been  much  denuded 
before  arriving  at  their  present  state;  but  even 
amid  their  rounded  form  and  worn  outline  the 
cross  stratification  is  still  traceable.  The  nearer 
they  are  to  the  coast  the  more  rugged  they  become, 
until  the  rocks  which  fringe  the  shore  are  as  studded 
with  points  and  projections  as  a  Gothic  pinnacle  or 
a  melting  glacier.  In  fact,  their  tops  have  just 
the  appearance  of  a  coral  reef,  quite  as  delicately 
branched,  and  as  varied.  A  mere  description  can 
scarcely  do  justice  to  the  strange  appearance  they 
present.  It  seems  as  if  the  rocks  were  covered  with 
slender  stone  shrubs,  tapering  gradually  to  a  point, 
amid  numerous  branchlets  and  ramifications,  or 
as  if  the  roof  of  a  cave  studded  with  stalactites 


LIMESTONE    CONCRETIONS.  163 

were  turned  upside  down,  and  placed  on  the  sea- 
coast.  Anything  but  spray  must  long  ago  have 
broken  them  to  pieces;  and  even  then,  how  they 
have  been  spared,  while  the  surrounding  rock  has 
been  worn  away,  does  not  appear  very  plain. 

Their  origin  I  explain  thus: — It  would  appear 
to  me  that  they  must  be  the  result  of  concretions 
of  lime  and  sand,  caused  by  the  percolating  of 
water  through  the  beds  prior  to  their  upheaval. 
This  would  harden  some  portions,  and  enable  them 
better  to  resist  the  action  of  water.  Indeed,  the 
fact  is  evident  that  such  a  course  has  been  in 
operation  in  other  places. 

It  will  be  remembered  that,  in  the  second  chapter 
of  this  work,  reference  is  made  to  a  kindred  circum- 
stance giving  rise  to  concretions  in  the  coral  rock. 
At  a  cliff  at  Guichen  Bay,  out  of  reach  of  the 
sea,  where  portions  of  the  rock  have  fallen  away 
and  caused  cavities,  the  sides  are  seen  to  be  covered 
with  what  appear  to  be  roots  of  trees.  Some  are 
thick,  and  twisted  in  various  forms,  more  divided 
at  the  top  and  thicker  at  the  bottom,  while  others 
are  slender.  There  is  some  difference  between 
them  and  the  ones  now  alluded  to  in  this  chapter. 
While  the  former  are  large  and  generally  covered 
with  a  fragmentary  mass  of  shells,  the  latter  are 
small,  and  like  chert  inside,  and  covered  with  the 
white  powdery  chalk  outside. 

The  same  peculiarity  may  be  seen  at  Cape 
Grant,  already  alluded  to,  where,  as  described,  the 
summit  overhangs  the  lower  part  of  the  face  of 

M  2 


164  LIMESTONE    CONCRETIONS. 

the  cliff,  which  is  seen  covered  with  these  twisted 
concretions,  of  all  sizes  and  sometimes  continuous 
through  many  strata.  Occasionally  they  jut  out 
from  the  face  of  the  rock,  so  as  to  be  easily  mis- 
taken for  roots.  I  attribute  their  origin  simply 
to  the  nitration  of  water  through  the  loose  texture 
of  the  crag,  which  has  dissolved  the  lime  as  it 
has  passed  through,  and  redeposited  it  round  the 
channel  it  formed  for  itself. 

There  are,  however,  other  theories  extant  as  to 
the  origin  of  similar  beds,  to  which  I  must  refer  in 
vindication  of  my  own  opinion.     The  similar  ap- 
pearances have  been  noticed  by  two  persons,  both 
eminently  qualified  to  give  an  opinion  on  such  a 
matter, — by  Mr.  Charles  Darwin,  in  his  *  Voyage  of 
the  Beagle,'  and  by  Mr".  Gregory,  in  his  account  of 
the  '  Exploration  of  Western  Australia.'    It  is  with 
the  greatest  drffidence  I  put  forward  my  views 
(apparently  in  opposition  to  theirs,  but  not  so  in 
fact),  that  readers  can  see  the  statements  and  judge 
for  themselves.     I  may,  however,  state,  that  my 
theory  is  the  result  of  a  longer  consideration  of  the 
locality  I  refer  to  than  either  gentlemen  were  able 
to  afford  it,  otherwise  they  would  perhaps  have 
seen  the  truth  of  what  is  here  stated.    It  must  be 
remarked,   that  I  am  not  sure    that  Mr.  Darwin 
refers  to  the  same  rocks  as  I  do,  and,  from  his  state- 
ment and  description,  it  is  probable  he  does  not ; 
but  as  he  himself  alludes  to  other  portions  of  the 
coast,  very  likely  it  may  be  imagined  that  his  de- 
scription was  meant  to  account  for  all,  especially  as 


LIMESTONE    CONCRETIONS.  165 

they  are  so  similar.  I  do  not  doubt  that  the 
deposits  of  Western  Australia  were  subaerial, 
because  of  the  land-shells,  though  I  should  be 
more  inclined  to  think  that  the  casts  were  entirely 
due  to  the  percolation  of  water.  But  I  am  sure 
that,  had  Mr.  Darwin  seen  the  deposits  of  Guichen 
Bay  and  Portland  after  those  of  Bald  Head,  he 
would  very  likely  have  set  them  down  as  iden- 
tical. It  is  because  the  strata  are  so  very  similar 
that  I  am  anxious  to  point  out  the  difference. 

In  describing  the  rocks  about  Western  Aus- 
tralia, he  says :  — '  One  day  I  accompanied  Captain 
Fitzroy  to  Bald  Head,  the  place  mentioned  by  so 
many  navigators,  where  some  imagined  they  saw 
corals,  and  others  that  they  saw  petrified  trees 
standing  in  the  position  in  which  they  had  grown. 
According  to  our  view,  the  beds  have  been  formed 
by  the  wind  having  heaped  up  fine  sand,  composed 
of  minute  particles  of  shells  and  corals,  during 
which  process  branches  and  roots  of  trees,  together 
with  many  land-shells,  became  enclosed.  The 
whole  then  became  consolidated  by  the  percolation 
of  calcareous  matter;  and  the  cylindrical  cavities 
left  by  the  decaying  of  the  wood  were  thus  also 
filled  up  with  a  hard  pseudo-stalactrial  stone. 
The  weather  is  now  wearing  away  the  softer  parts, 
and,  in  consequence,  the  hard  casts  of  the  roots  and 
branches  of  the  trees  project  above  the  surface,  and, 
in  a  singularly  deceptive  manner,  resemble  the 
stumps  of  a  dead  thicket.' 

Now,  the  only  particular  in  which  this  description 


166  CONCRETIONS   NOT   FOSSIL   TEEES. 

differs  from  what  I  am  describing,  is  the  occurrence 
of  land-shells ;  these  I  have  »ever  met  except  in 
the  sand  on  the  surface  above  tjie  rock,  which  sand 
was  evidently  derived  from  drift,  being  composed 
of  larger  fragments  of  shells,  in  which  the  colour- 
ing matter  was  nearly  always  preserved.  The  land- 
shells  were  small  species  of  Succinea.  There  were 
also  in  this  drift  many  twisted  roots  and  branches 
of  mangroves  and  of  other  salsolaceous  shrubs. 
These,  if  the  deposit  gets  hardened,  may  possibly 
become  like  the  roots  at  Bald  Head ;  but  then  they 
will  present  a  very  different  appearance  from  those 
described  in  the  strata  underneath.  If  the  exist- 
ence of  land-shells  in  the  Bald  Head  beds  is  as 
certain  as  their  absence  from  those  in  South  Aus- 
tralia, then  we  must  clearly  be  treating  of  differ- 
ent formations.  At  any  rate,  lest  anyone  should 
imagine  that  our  upper  crag  and  its  concretions 
owe  their  origin  to  a  similar  cause,  it  will  be  useful 
to  state  the  reasons  against  such  a  theory.  First, 
however,  it  must  be  mentioned  that  Mr.  Gregory, 
the  explorer,  alludes  to  the  same  formation,  and 
adds  that  it  is  derived  from  a  drift  of  sand  and 
shells  from  the  coast  which  becomes  hardened ;  and 
further,  that  it  may  be  seen  in  all  stages  of  forma- 
tion round  the  coast.  Probably  he  alludes  also  to 
our  part  of  the  coast ;  and  this,  again,  is  why  I  am 
anxious  to  state  the  difference. 

It  is  true  that  sand  is  being  drifted  up  in  im- 
mense quantities  round  parts  of  the  coast  of 
Southern  Australia,  so. as  to  bury  trees  and  render 


CONCRETIONS    NOT   FOSSIL   TKEES.  167 

considerable  tracts  unavailable.  But  this  drift  is 
only  composed  of  the  finest  particles  of  shells  and 
quartz,  —  such,  in  fact,  as  would  only  be  carried 
along  by  winds.  I  have  examined  many  of  these 
'  sand  dunes, '  and  a  lengthened  description  of  them 
will  be  found  in  the  next  chapter.  It  will  only  be 
necessary  to  mention  that  they  contain  no  perfect 
shells,  as  far  as  I  am  aware,  and  never  bear  signs  of 
stratification.  Such  a  formation  could  scarcely  be 
hardened  except  by  the  permanent  action  of  water. 
Mere  rain  would  not  do  it,  and  in  fact  does  not ; 
for  after  the  winter  season  we  find  these  banks 
as  shifting  and  as  loose  as  ever. 

Then,  with  regard  to  the  concretions,  whatever 
may  be  the  case  with  those  in  Western  Australia, 
nothing  but  a  very  superficial  observation  would 
bear  out  the  notion  that  they  have  ever  been  trees 
or  roots ;  though  they  certainly  have  a  strong  resem- 
blance in  their  roundness,  and  in  the  inequalities 
of  the  surface  which  give  the  appearance  of  bark : 
for,  on  being  traced  down,  they  generally  continue 
for  twenty  feet  without  a  change  in  their  diameter, 
unless  to  become  a  little  wider.  Again,  most  of  them 
at  some  part  of  their  course  get  accessions  from 
other  percolations,  and  then  go  down  in  the  form 
of  fluted  columns,  which  is  hardly  consistent  with 
the  notion  of  their  being  casts  of  trees.  One 
would  certainly  expect  to  find  also  some  trace  of 
their  vegetable  origin,  even  though  they  be  casts  and 
not  silicified  trees,  but  nothing  of  the  kind  ib  seen, 
On  breaking  them,  the  interior  is  found  to  be  a 


168  CONCRETIONS   NOT   FOSSIL   TKEES. 

compact  magnesian  limestone,  just  what  the  filtra- 
tion of  water  holding  lime  and  magnesia  in  solution 
would  occasion. 

I  have  been  often  taken  to  see  what  have  been 
termed  fossil  trees  in  the  crag,  but  have  always 
returned  disappointed.  Sometimes  persons  have 
shown  me  circular  holes,  about  a  foot  in  diameter, 
lined  with  concentric  rings  of  limestone,  and  I  have 
been  asked,  did  I  not  consider  them  to  be  casts  left 
by  the  trees  which  have  rotted  away?  But,  how- 
ever delusive  the  appearances  were,  a  reference  to 
the  sea-coast  showed  the  holes  to  be  analogous  to 
the  '  sand-pipes '  spoken  of  in  a  former  chapter. 
Near  the  sea  they  may  be  noticed  of  various  depths, 
from  one  foot  to  five,  and  even  more.  They  are 
always  lined  with  concentric  laminae  of  stone. 
But  the  clearest  proof  that  these  strata  have  been 
formed  under  water  is  given  by  their  present  dis- 
tribution. If  the  theory  of  Messrs.  Darwin  and 
Gregory  were  applicable  to  the  upper  crag  of  South 
Australia,  then  it  must  have  been  formed  on  dry 
land.  But  many  portions  of  it  are  now  under 
the  sea,  and  consequently  there  must  have  been 
subsidence  since  its  formation  to  place  it  there. 
Now,  it  may  be  safely  aifirmed  that  there  is  no 
evidence  of  such  subsidence:  on  the  contrary,  a 
regular  course  of  upheaval  since  the  formation  of 
the  coralline  beds  is  manifestly  apparent.  There- 
fore we  may  reasonably  conclude  that  the  theory 
will  not  meet  the  case  of  South  Australia. 

Some  of  the  concretions  may  have  resulted  from 


CONCRETIONS   NOT   FOSSIL    TREES.  169 

coral,  transformed  by  rolling  and  coast  action  into 
rounded  cylinders  of  calcareous  fragments,  and  then 
buried  in  the  fragmentary  detritus.  Mr.  Darwin 
mentions  such  things  as  being  common  at  Keeling 
Atoll,  and  I  have  frequently  picked  up  upon  the 
coast  similar  specimens. 

It  may  seem  a  waste  of  time  to  dwell  so  long 
on  a  comparatively  unimportant  point ;  but  I  have 
been  constrained  to  do  so,  not  for  the  sake  of  con- 
tradicting abler  men  than  myself,  who  were  pro- 
bably quite  right  in  the  strata  they  referred  to, 
but  in  order  to  give  an  accurate  account  of  the 
origin  of  all  the  beds  met  with  in  the  district  I 
have  undertaken  to  describe. 

After  having  described  the  concretions  which 
make  the  coast  more  beautiful  and  less  monotonous 
than  the  South  Australian  coast  usually  is,  other 
peculiarities  in  the  same  strata  soon  claim  our 
notice.  The  soft  nature  of  this  rock  has  already  fre- 
quently been  remarked.  This  has  given  rise  to  caves 
of  various  depths;  and  the  rocks  are  so  corroded, 
that  one  may  wander  long  at  Guichen  Bay  with- 
out exploring  all  the  winding  passages  and  crevices 
in  the  cliffs.  Nearly  all  of  them  are  more  or  less 
undermined,  and  scarcely  a  year  passes  in  which 
huge  masses  of  rock  do  not  fall  down.  In 
some  places,  where  the  sea  has  been  beating  away 
at  the  end  of  a  cave  without  having  had  much 
effect  upon  the  sides,  the  water  has  bored  to  the 
surface  by  a  kind  of  channel,  through  which  every 
wave  which  falls  upon  the  shore  sends  up  a  column 


170  BLOW-HOLES. 

of  water  into  the  air.  These  are  the  celebrated 
'  blow-holes,'  of  which  there  are  many  round  the 
coast.  Nothing  can  be  more  singular  than  their 
effect,  even  on  the  calmest  day.  You  stand  at  the 
edge  of  a  small  round  hole  surrounded  with  stony 
shrubs,  and  every  few  minutes  a  roar  is  heard  as 
the  wave  advances  up  the  cave :  it  drives  the  air 
before  it,  and  amid  the  noise  a  final  explosion  shakes 
the  ground,  dashing  a  cloud  of  silvery  spray  into 
the  air,  after  which  the  water  falls  splashing 
around ;  there  is  a  moaning  recoil  of  the  water, 
and  stillness  returns. 

It  is  curious  to  observe  the  effect  of  two  antago- 
nistic forces  which  are  here  at  work.  The  land  is 
upheaving  slowly,  and  the  sea  is  rapidly  eating 
away  the  coast  line ;  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
the  ocean  would  have  the  best  of  the  struggle,  and 
soon  indemnify  itself  for  all  the  losses  made  by  the 
uplifting  of  her  ancient  bed,  if  the  rock  were  all  of 
the  same  soft  texture.  But  this  is  not  the  case,  as 
previously  stated;  and  while  the  coast  action  has 
eaten  deeply  into  the  line  of  cliffs,  causing  either 
deep  indentations  or  piles  of  ruins,  some  portions 
are  able  to  hold  out  in  the  form  of  the  reefs  men- 
tioned. The  coast  suffers  much  more  heavily  in 
winter  than  in  summer ;  for  it  is  quite  unprotected 
from  the  whole  southern  ocean,  and  when  the  west 
and  southerly  gales  prevail  in  winter,  one  day's 
wind  is  sufficient  to  send  the  sea  upon  the  rocks 
with  a  fearful  swell,  which  bears  down  everything 
before  it. 


DENUDATION.  171 

We  might  further  enquire,  What  has  become  of 
the  detritus  caused  by  these  immense  ravages  ?  A 
great  deal  of  it,  certainly,  is  drifted  up  in  the  form 
of  sand,  which  at  Guichen  Bay  and  Cape  Bridge- 
water  forms  low  hills,  extending  to  the  northward, 
and  sometimes  far  inland.  A  portion  of  it,  how- 
ever, is  redeposited  on  the  tops  of  these  rocks, 
which  are  under  water,  and  forms  a  thin  stratum 
of  limestone,  containing  shells  of  existing  spe- 
cies. The  description  of  these  beds  belongs  to  the 
next  chapter ;  but  I  may  mention  that  they  are 
found  distributed,  more  or  less,  over  the  whole  dis- 
trict. I  have  been  the  more  anxious  to  dwell  on 
the  waste  that  the  rocks  are  undergoing,  because  it 
will  be  presently  seen  that  a  great  portion  of  them 
has  been  entirely  removed ;  and  unless  we  were 
previously  aware  of  the  way  it  is  being  worn  down 
by  the  sea,  we  should  have  a  difficulty,  even  taking 
into  consideration  its  soft  nature,  in  attributing 
it  all  to  denudation. 

Let  us  now  go  through  the  history  of  the  deposit 
as  the  rocks  present  it  to  us.  While  the  coral  was 
yet  building,  the  land  continued  to  subside,  and  reefs 
which  had  been  close  to  the  shore  became  farther 
and  farther  removed  from  it.  By  and  by  coasts 
became  islands,  becoming  smaller  and  smaller  as 
they  went  down,  and  in  time  little  more  than  a  ring 
of  coral  was  seen  to  mark  the  spot  where  they  had 
been.  Island  after  island  disappeared,  until  at  last 
the  coral  stood  alone,  a  series  of  atolls  and  long 
reefs,  in  a  deep  and  open  sea.  Changes  in  the  relative 


172  HISTORY    OF    THE    DEPOSIT. 

position  of  land  and  water  would  give  rise  to  changes 
of  temperature,  and  this  would  in  time  cause 
new  currents  to  flow  in  the  ocean.  Such  currents 
bring  down  sediment,  or  fine  deposit  of  broken  shells, 
sand,  and  mud.  Those  corals  which  had  not  been 
killed  by  the  alteration  of  temperature,  or  died  by 
the  subsidence  or  gradual  diminution  of  the  size 
of  their  reefs,  would  be  destroyed  by  the  sediment. 
Perhaps  these  are  not  the  only  changes  to  which 
their  extinction  is  attributable.  Changes  in  me- 
teorological conditions  would  be  so  numerous  after 
the  subsidence  of  a  large  continent,  that  we  could 
not  say  how  many  might  cooperate  to  produce  the 
same  result.  Thus,  a  change  of  wind  for  any  length 
of  time  causes  the  destruction  of  many,  by  taking 
them  out  of  the  reach  of  the  water.  Besides,  we 
do  not  as  yet  know  all  the  conditions  of  animal  life 
well  enough  to  assert  that  races  have  not  their 
duration  of  life  as  well  as  individuals.  One  thing 
is  certain,  that  in  going  through  the  past  history, 
as  afforded  by  geology,  we  constantly  meet  with 
evidences  of  the  destruction  of  a  whole  race  by 
apparently  natural  causes.  Bones  are  found  in 
immense  numbers  round  lakes ;  fossils  which  are 
plentiful  in  one  stratum  are  quite  absent  from  those 
immediately  above ;  and  many  other  instances  might 
be  given,  all  showing  that  a  termination  may  come 
to  animal  existence  without  any  apparently  extra- 
neous causes.  Even  something  analogous  may  be 
seen  in  the  human  race,  where  new  diseases  are  con- 
stantly appearing,  sweeping  away  thousands  of 


OCEAN   CURRENTS.  173 

our   fellow-creatures,    and    perhaps    limiting   the 
duration  of  human  life. 

At  any  rate,  we  have  evidence  of  two  things  in 
the  strata  before  us, —  the  death  of  the  coral,  and 
its  burial  under  a  large  deposit  of  sediment.  The 
subsidence  seems  to  have  continued  long  after  the 
reef-building  had  stopped,  and  long  enough,  indeed, 
for  the  formation  of  the  immense  deposits  of  calca- 
reous sandstone  which  now  lie  about  the  coast. 
Some  parts  of  the  coral  reef  are  covered  to  a  depth 
of  sixty  and  seventy  feet  with  the  upper  crag,  all 
formed  of  the  thin  diversely  stratified  sandstone. 
Though  the  quantity  of  matter  thus  transported 
must  have  been  enormous,  it  did  not  necessarily 
take  such  a  long  period  to  form  as  one  would  at 
first  be  inclined  to  think.  Currents  sometimes 
bear  down  an  immense  quantity  of  sediment  in 
a  very  short  time,  and  though  this  gets  dis- 
tributed over  a  large  surface,  yet  it  would  not 
require  very  many  years  to  cover  a  considerable 
area  to  some  depth.  Thus,  then,  it  was  that  the 
upper  crag  was  formed.  The  sea  rolled  over  the 
reefs,  carrying  fragments  of  shells  and  sand  from 
shallow  places;  the  white  mud  was  gradually 
darkened  with  the  detritus  it  spread  thicker 
and  thicker,  now  in  sandbanks  and  undulating 
hillocks,  then  a  change  would  come ;  a  stream  from 
another  direction,  perhaps,  which  would  sweep  a 
level  surface  before  depositing  fresh  material,  leav- 
ing a  deep  line  of  division  in  the  stone  which  was 
hardening  underneath.  Thus  it  went  on  forming 


174  THE    CRAG   FORMED. 

either  in  huge  mounds  or  level  surfaces,  small  pieces 
of  shell  and  fragments  of  sand  adding  and  adding 
their  tiny  proportions  to  the  mass,  until  the  work 
was  done,  beautified  by  the  percolation  of  water, 
and  the  stone  was  raised  from  the  sea,  as  we  see 
it  now. 

The  above  is  the  description  of  the  way  the 
stone  was  formed:  we  have  yet  to  examine  the 
evidence  of  its  partial  destruction.  It  may  have 
been  that  the  whole  district,  perhaps  as  far  east  as 
Port  Fairy,  to  the  Murray  mouth  west,  has  been 
covered  with  the  same  deposit,  extending  far  inland, 
and  that  afterwards  the  greater  portion  has  been 
removed,  as  the  land  was  slowly  raised  from  the 
sea.  This  opinion  is  founded  on  the  occurrence  at 
various  parts  of  the  country  of  small  hillocks  of 
rock,  perhaps  an  acre  or  so  in  extent,  and  some 
few  feet  thick,  identical  in  composition  with  the 
upper  crag,  even  to  the  concretions.  There  are 
such  spots  at  Mount  Gambier,  and  again  at  many 
parts  of  the  Mosquito  Plains.  These  are  generally 
very  hard  indeed,  like  granite,  are  much  rounded 
by  the  sea,  and  are  generally  perforated  all  over 
by  Lithodomi  or  molluscs,  which  bore  into  stone 
lying  under  the  sea.  Such  borings  show  that 
the  stone  itself  has  been  exposed  for  a  long  time  to 
coast  action,  and  its  hardness  explains  how  it  was 
able  to  resist  decay  and  withstand  wear,  which 
swept  away  the  rest  of  the  deposit. 

Of  course  it  cannot  be  said  that  the  upper  crag 
was  at  one  time  spread  over  the  coral  rock  in  the 


THE    CRAG   RAISED.  175 

same  thickness  as  the  strata  seen  at  Guichen  Bay 
and  elsewhere ;  the  continued  appearance  of  such 
patches  as  those  just  described  show  clearly  that 
it  was  pretty  generally  distributed ;  but  it  is  of  the 
nature  of  such  strata  to  be  partial,  and  to  have  heavy 
banks  in  some  places,  while  in  others  it  is  nearly 
entirely  wanting:  neither  at  Cape  Grant  nor  at 
Guichen  Bay  are  the  strata  of  the  same  thickness 
throughout.  Sometimes  they  are  piled  up  like  sand- 
banks, and  at  other  places  they  are  low.  At  Cape 
Lannes,  before  alluded  to,  the  rock  is  very  hard, 
while  a  narrow  neck  of  the  same  strata  which 
joins  it  to  the  shore  is  comparatively  softer,  and  is 
rapidly  being  worn  away ;  so  that  the  cape  may  yet 
stand  out  as  an  isolated  rock.  From  this  point  is 
also  observed  the  varied  hardness  of  the  stone; 
the  coast  behind  is  honeycombed  into  the  most 
fantastic  forms,  bearing  no  small  resemblance  to 
ruined  Druidical  monuments  amid  ornamental 
garden  pottery. 

In  a  rock  where  hardness  is  the  exception  rather 
than  the  rule,  it  is  not  difficult  to  imagine  how 
such  immense  portions  became  removed.  As  the 
upheaval  went  on,  each  separate  portion  was 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  coast,  which  not  only 
appears  to  have  perfectly  removed  it,  but  to  have 
eaten  for  some  distance  into  the  coralline  rock 
underneath.  The  denudation  thus  effected  must 
have,  been  enormous,  even  admitting  that  the 
deposit  was  not  general  nor  of  great  thickness 
throughout ;  and  much  as  it  excites  our  admiration 


176  ITS    SUBSEQUENT   EEMOVAL. 

to  see  millions  of  tons  of  rock  brought  down  by  an 
ocean  stream,  still  more  are  we  astounded  to  see 
the  same  swept  away  again  so  completely,  that,  had 
not  a  few  traces  remained  here  and  there,  we  could 
not  have  known  even  of  the  existence  of  what  took 
ages  to  form. 

When  such  operations  as  these  are  brought  to 
light,  we  perceive  the  utter  impossibility  of  arriving 
at  any  correct  data  for  a  geological  chronology. 
Whole  strata  may  have  been  removed,  and  the 
detritus  stratified  elsewhere,  and  this  again  de- 
nuded; while  not  a  vestige  of  these  operations 
remains,  and  the  immense  time  occupied  in  their 
accomplishment  remains  wholly  unknown  to  us. 
Thus  it  is  again  that  such  singular  breaks  occur  in 
the  geological  history  of  the  earth  in  going  from 
one  period  to  another.  A  totally  different  fauna 
will  succeed  within  a  few  feet.  The  record  of  the 
changes  gone  through  has  probably  been  denuded, 
and  left  us  with  only  the  hiatus  evident.  Causa 
latet,  vis  est  notissima. 

Before  quitting  the  subject  of  their  formation, 
there  are  two  or  three  things  yet  to  be  noticed.  The 
age  of  these  rocks — that  is,  their  position  in  the 
geological  series — is  easily  determined ;  for  though 
there  are  no  fossils,  there  is  the  record  of  these  strata 
immediately  following  the  coral  beds  in  their  sub- 
sidence: above,  again,  are  more  recent  strata,  to 
be  made  the  subject  of  the  next  chapter.  Jhese 
may  here  indicate  a  formation  which  has  a  strong 
resemblance  to  our  crag,  namely,  the  Suffolk  crag, 
described  by  Charlesworth,  Phillips,  Lyell,  &c.  I 


ITS   AGE.  177 

will  here  repeat  what  has  been  said  in  a  former 
chapter : — l  The  Suffolk  crag  is  divisible  into  two 
masses,  the  upper  of  which  has  been  termed 
the  Red,  and  the  lower  the  Coralline  crag  ;  the 
upper  deposit  consists  chiefly  of  quartzose  sand, 
with  an  occasional  intermixture  of  shells  for  the 
most  part  rotted  and  sometimes  comminuted.  .  .  . 
The  lower  or  Coralline  crag  is  of  very  limited  ex- 
tent, ranging  over  an  area  about  twenty  miles  in 
length  and  three  or  four  in  breadth.  It  is  gene- 
rally calcareous  and  marly ;  a  mass  of  shells,  bryo- 
zoa  and  small  corals,  passing  occasionally  into 
a  soft  building  stone  ....  At  some  places  in 
the  neighbourhood  the  softer  mass  is  divided  by 
thin  flags  of  hard  limestone,  and  corals  placed  in 
the  upright  position  in  which  they  grew.  The  Red 
crag  is  distinguished  by  the  deep  ferruginous  or 
ochreous  colour  of  its  sands  and  fossils,  the  Coral- 
line by  its  white  colours.'  A  little  farther  on,  the 
same  author  says : — '  The  Red  crag,  being  formed  in 
a  shallower  sea,  often  resembles  in  structure  a  shift- 
ing sandbank,  its  layers  being  inclined  diagonally, 
and  the  places  of  stratification  being  sometimes 
directed,  in  the  same  quarry,  to  the  four  cardinal 
points  of  the  compass,  as  at  Birtley.' 

Now  this  description  would  apply  very  well  to 
our  crag.  The  colour,  the  stratification,  the  irre- 
gularly deposited  comminuted  particles  resting  on  a 
white  coralline  rock,  would  seem  to  be  identical  with 
the  deposits  treated  of  in  this  and  the  former  chapter. 
But  mineral  composition  alone  is  a  very  weak  guide 

N 


178  IDENTICAL    WITH    SUFFOLK   CRAG. 

in  these  matters.  It  is  upon  the  fauna  we  must 
depend;  and  in  this,  as  far  as  I  can  judge,  they  are 
not  dissimilar.  But  still  it  is  interesting  to  observe 
that  a  coralline  rock,  like  that  of  Australia,  has 
been  followed  by  a  sandy  deposit  like  our  crag. 

That  similar  fossils  should  be  deposited  under 
different  local  circumstances,  so  as  to  have  an 
almost  entirely  different  mineral  character,  is  not 
at  all  uncommon ;  but  that  dissimilar  strata,  con- 
taining fauna,  related  to  each  other  by  a  similar 
geological  epoch,  should  be  deposited  under  pre- 
cisely similar  circumstances,  is  a  remarkable  in- 
stance, as  stated  in  last  chapter.  Professor  Forbes 
concluded  that  the  Suffolk  crag  was  not  found  at 
any  great  depth  of  sea,  probably  at  not  more  than 
from  twenty-five  to  thirty  fathoms;  but  yet  he 
would  not  call  the  deposit  a  lateral  one,  because 
it  might  have  been  fifty  miles  out  to  sea. 

The  same  might,  perhaps,  have  been  said  of  our 
crag,  did  it  contain  any  fossils.  But  as  there  are 
none,  and  as  the  portions  of  shells  are  all  very  finely 
broken,  perhaps  the  depth  of  the  sea  and  the  distance 
from  land  were  much  greater  than  that  of  the  Suf- 
folk crag.  The  sea  might  have  been  in  course  of 
upheaval  during  the  formation  of  some  parts  of  it. 
I  should  imagine  this  from  the  layer  of  trap  upon 
which  a  portion  is  stratified.  Yolcanic  emanations 
are  only  usually  met  with  when  the  land  is  uprising. 
But  this  subject  more  properly  belongs  to  another 
part  of  this  work  which  treats  of  the  volcanoes. 

In  conclusion,  I  must  mention  a  few  facts  with 


CONCLUSION.  179 

reference  to  the  water-level  here.  Generally  fresh 
water  is  found  on  the  top  of  the  crag  when  covered 
by  more  modern  strata.  If  it  is  not  found  there  it 
must  be  sunk  for  until  the  compact  portion  of  the 
coralline  rock  is  reached.  At  Mount  Gambier  the 
water  seems  to  preserve  a  uniform  height  above 
the  sea,  so  that  the  depth  of  a  well  will  depend 
upon  whether  it  is  sunk  on  rising  or  low  ground. 
The  water  is  very  hard,  and  contains  large  quan- 
tities of  magnesia.  It  is  singularly  clear  and  pel- 
lucid, but,  when  more  than  forty  feet  in  depth,  it 
exhibits  as  rich  a  blue  as  the  deepest  parts  of  the 
ocean. 

The  colour  of  water  will  very  often  depend  on 
the  bottom  upon  which  it  rests.  Thus  I  have  seen 
the  sea  a  light  green  when  out  of  soundings,  and 
many  hundred  miles  from  the  African  coast ;  and  I 
have  seen  the  sea  a  deep  blue  at  thirty  fathoms, 
close  to  a  basaltic  coast :  but  at  Mount  Gambier  it 
appears  to  be  the  nature  of  the  water;  for,  no  matter 
how  white  the  limestone  beneath  may  be,  the  water 
if  of  any  depth  is  deep  blue.  I  believe  Bunsen  has 
published  reasons  why  blue  is  the  natural  colour  of 
water;  but,  I  think,  if  a  careful  examination  were 
made,  its  colour  would  be  found  to  depend  upon 
the  salts  it  holds  in  solution. 


I  may  add  here,   that  when   approaching   the 
Australian  coast,  we    took  numerous   soundings, 

K  2 


180  CONCLUSION. 

and  found  that  at  about  ninety  fathoms  (540  feet) 
the  lead  came  up  covered  with  a  loose  fine  deposit 
of  broken  shells  and  sand  exactly  like  the  crag ;  this 
might  give  some  idea  of  the  depth  at  which  such 
strata  might  be  found.  I  have  found  no  Forami- 
nifera,  though  doubtless  they  exist  in  the  deposit ; 
under  the  microscope,  it  appeared  as  if  composed 
entirely  of  small  fragments  of  shells. 


181 


CHAPTER  VII. 
THE  REEF'S  SUBSEQUENT  HISTOEY. 

PRELIMINARY     OBSERVATIONS. ASPECT    OF     THE     AUSTRALIAN 

COAST SAND. SAND     FORMATION     OF    CORNWALL. ORIGIN 

OF   AUSTRALIAN  SAND. ITS  COMPOSITION. UPPER  LIMESTONE 

AND    SHELL    DEPOSIT. LOCALITIES     IN    WHICH     THE      LATTER 

OCCUR. STONE    HUT   RANGE. OBSERVATIONS   ON    THE    FAUNA 

OF    THE    DEPOSIT. LAKES    ON    THE    COAST. THE    COORONG. 

LAKE     HAWDON. LAKE     ELIZA. LAKE     ST.     CLAIR. LAKE 

GEORGE.  —  LAKE    BONNEY. GERMAN     FLAT. MOUTH    OF    THE 

MURRAY. UPHEAVAL     OF     THE     AUSTRALIAN     COAST.  —  THIS 

PROVED     FROM   THE    COAST    LINE FROM     SOUTH    AUSTRALIAN 

RIVERS,  AND  ESPECIALLY  THE  REEDY  CREEK. UPHEAVAL  STILL 

GOING   ON. PERIODS   OF    REST. SIX     CHAINS     OF     HILLS.  — 

TERRACES    FORMED   FROM   OLD    SEA   BEACHES. SAND  DUNES. 

NOT  HARDENING    INTO    STONE. SIMILAR    FORMATIONS    IN    SUF- 
FOLK.  LAKE  SUPERIOR  AND  BAHIA  BLANCA. WHY  GENERALLY 

ASSOCIATED   WITH   SANDSTONE. 

WE  have  hitherto  been  considering  the  under- 
lying rocks  of  the  districts.  Though  they 
often  crop  out,  and  are  always  met  with  only  at 
a  very  few  feet  from  the  surface,  yet  they  may  pro- 
perly be  termed  underlying,  because  they  are  geo- 
logically more  ancient  than  the  deposits  to  be  con- 
sidered in  this  chapter.  We  have  seen  just  now  how 
the  whole  series  of  strata,  from  the  coralline  to  the 
crag,  resembles  the  series  that  is  found  in  Suffolk, 
as  far  as  mineral  composition  and  general  aspect 
are  concerned.  This  correspondence  is  the  less 


182  NEW   SUBAEEIAL   DEPOSIT. 

singular,  once  that  the  coral  reef  theory  is  ad- 
mitted, for  we  find  that  round  most  atolls,  barren 
reefs,  &c.,  the  broken  coral  generally  becomes 
formed  into  a  hard  rock,  like  ferruginous  sandstone, 
which  is  very  compact,  though  composed  of  large 
grains.  Perhaps  some  patches  of  crag  found  in  the 
interior  were  formed  thus,  contemporaneously  with 
the  coral,  and  are  therefore  distinct  from  the  crag 
of  the  coast :  but  it  must  not  be  thought  that  the 
whole  is  of  the  same  origin;  its  thickness,  its  stra- 
tification, and  its  general  texture  preclude  such  a 
supposition. 

We  are  now  about  to  consider  a  deposit  with 
which  coral  has  had  nothing  to  do ;  it  is  neither  so 
extensive  nor  so  thick  as  the  others  we  have  been 
considering,  and  it  is  the  last  in  the  geological 
chronology  of  this  part  of  Australia. 

Its  description  must  necessarily  be  rather  lengthy. 
There  are  so  many  features,  so  many  details  to  be 
considered  with  it,  that  even  a  mere  enumeration 
would  be  long.  The  details,  however,  are  mostly 
of  an  interesting  character,  and  their  consideration 
will  repay  the  importance  allotted  to  them. 

As  we  have  now  to  deal  with  the  surface,  let 
us  begin  with  the  coast  line.  The  aspect  of  the 
coast  of  Australia,  like  that  of  Egypt,  Arabia,  and 
many  other  countries,  is  low  and  sandy.  Places 
here  and  there,  like  Cape  Otway,  Cape  Jervis,  and 
Port  Jackson,  besides  other  small  spots,  expose  a 
bold  and  rocky  front  to  the  sea,  but  generally  only 
sand-hills  are  seen,  clotted  here  and  there  with  dark- 
green  patches,  but  commonly  forlorn  and  uninviting. 


SAND.  183 

It  appears  strange  how  early  discoverers  could 
entertain  a  good  opinion  of  the  country,  when  all 
that  met  their  view  was  an  interminable  line  of  sand 
and  scrub,  rendered  unapproachable  not  only  by 
its  cheerless  loneliness,  but  also  by  the  large  white 
surfs  which  boomed  eternally  along  it  with  a 
gloomy  roar.  Hills  and  trees  might  appear  in  the 
distance,  but  really  they  are  the  exception  on  the 
east  coast,  and  even  these  are  thickly  wooded 
with  vegetation  which  is  anything  but  verdant  or 
promising. 

Let  us  commence,  then,  with  the  sand.  This 
covers  the  shores,  not  for  a  few  hundred  yards, 
as  on  most  beaches,  but  sometimes  a  mile  or  more 
inland.  Seldom  are  rocks  seen  amongst  these 
hills ;  if  there  are  any,  the  sand  covers  them, — not 
a  fine  white  silicious  sand,  but  coarse  grained, 
containing  many  small  fragments  of  shells,  of  a 
light-yellow  colour,  and  composed  nearly  entirely 
of  carbonate  of  lime.  It  has  been  mentioned 
in  the  second  chapter  of  this  work,  that  a  great 
part  of  the  district  now  described  is  covered 
with  a  calcareous  sand.  As  we  know  that  the 
whole  coast  has  been  upheaved,  perhaps  some 
of  it  has  been  derived  from  coast  action.  At 
all  events,  for  twelve  miles  inland  sand  is  com- 
mon, even  though  covered  with  grass;  and  that 
this  has  been  sea-sand  there  can  be  little  doubt, 
because  it  is  interspersed  with  sea-shells  such 
as  are  now  found  upon  the  coast.  Considering 
its  calcareous  nature,  it  is  a  matter  of  astonish- 
ment that  it  has  not  been  consolidated  into  a  com- 


184  .  SAND. 

pact  rock.  But  it  has  not  been.  On  the  contrary,  it 
is  so  loose  as  to  be  blown  about  by  every  breath  of 
wind,  giving  rise  to  the  phenomena  of  sand  dunes 
(like  those  on  the  Suffolk  coast),  which  will  be 
more  fully  noticed  when  I  come  to  speak  of  up- 
heaval. 

Such  sand  might,  however,  be  hardened  into  a 
stone.  Instances  of  this  are  met  with  at  Gua- 
daloupe  and  on  the  coast  of  Cornwall.  The  latter 
is  worth  citing  here,  more  especially  as  it  shows 
how  a  subaerial  deposit  might  resemble  the  crag 
mentioned  in  the  preceding  chapter.  It  is  thus 
described  in  the  appendix  to  Mantell's  '  Wonders 
of  Geology:'  — 

1 A  sandstone  occurs  in  various  parts  of  the 
northern  coast  of  Cornwall  which  affords  a  most 
instructive  example  of  a  recent  formation,  since 
we  here  actually  detect  nature  at  work,  in  con- 
verting loose  sand  into  solid  rock.  A  very  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  northern  coast  of  Cornwall 
is  covered  with  calcareous  sand,  consisting  of 
minute  particles  of  comminuted  shells,  and  in 
some  places  has  accumulated  in  quantities  so  great 
as  to  have  formed  hills  of  from  forty  to  sixty  feet 
in  elevation. 

'In  digging  into  these  sand-hills,  or  upon  the 
occasional  removal  of  some  part  of  them  by  the 
winds,  the  remains  of  houses  may  be  seen;  and 
in  places  where  churchyards  have  been  over- 
whelmed, a  great  number  of  human  bones  may 
be  found.  The  sand  is  supposed  to  have  been 


SAND,  185 

originally  brought  from  the  sea  by  hurricanes, 
probably  at  a  remote  period. 

'  At  the  present  moment,  the  progress  of  its 
incursion  is  arrested  by  the  growth  of  Arundo 
arenacea.  The  sand  first  appears  in  a  slight  but 
increasing  state  of  aggregation  on  several  parts 
of  the  shore  in  the  Bay  of  St.  Ives;  but  on  ap- 
proaching the  Groythian  river  it  becomes  more 
extensive  and  indurated.  On  the  shore,  opposite 
Godrevy  Island,  an  immense  mass  of  it  occurs, 
of  more  than  a  hundred  feet  in  length,  and  from 
ten  to  twenty  feet  in  depth,  containing  entire  shells 
and  fragments  of  clay-slate;  it  is  singular  that 
the  whole  mass  assumes  a  striking  appearance  of 
stratification.  In  some  places  it  appears  that  at- 
tempts have  been  made  to  separate  it,  probably 
for  the  purpose  of  building,  for  several  old  houses 
in  Groythian  are  built  of  it. 

'The  rocks  in  the  vicinity  of  this  recent  formation 
in  the  Bay  of  St.  Ives  are  greenstone  and  clay-slate, 
alternating  with  each  other.  The  clay-slate  is  in  a 
state  of  rapid  decomposition,  in  consequence  of 
which  large  masses  of  the  hornblende  rock  have 
fallen  in  various  directions  and  given  a  singular 
character  of  picturesque  rudeness  to  the  scene. 
This  is  remarkable  in  the  rocks  which  constitute 
Godrevy  Island.  It  is  around  the  promontory  of 
New  Kaye  that  the  most  extensive  formation  of 
sandstone  takes  place. 

'  Here  it  may  be  seen  in  different  stages  of  indu- 
ration, from  a  state  in  which  it  is  too  feeble  to 


186  CORNWALL    SANDSTONE. 

be  detected  from  the  rock  upon  which  it  reposes, 
to  hardness  so  considerable  that  it  requires  a  very 
violent  blow  from  a  sledge  to  break  it.  Buildings 
are  here  constructed  of  it;  the  church  of  Cran- 
stock  is  entirely  built  with  it;  and  it  is  also 
employed  for  various  articles  of  domestic  and 
agricultural  uses. 

1  The  geologist,  who  has  previously  examined 
the  celebrated  specimen  from  Guadaloupe,  will  be 
struck  with  the  great  analogy  which  it  bears  to 
this  formation.  Suspecting  that  masses  might  be 
found  containing  human  bones,  if  a  diligent  search 
were  made  in  the  vicinity  of  those  cemeteries 
which  have  been  overwhelmed,  I  made  some  in- 
vestigations in  those  spots,  but,  I  regret  to  add, 
without  success. 

1  The  rocks  upon  which  the  sandstone  reposes 
are  alternations  of  clay,  slate,  and  slatey  limestone. 
The  inclination  of  the  beds  is  SSW.,  and  at  an 
angle  of  40°.  Upon  a  plain  formed  by  the  edges 
of  these  strata  lies  a  horizontal  bed  of  rounded 
pebbles,  cemented  together  by  the  sandstone  which 
is  deposited  immediately  above  them,  forming  a  bed 
of  from  ten  to  twelve  feet  in  thickness,  containing 
fragments  of  slate  and  entire  shells,  and  exhibiting 
the  same  appearance  of  stratification  as  that  noticed 
in  St.  Ives'  Bay. 

'Above  this  sandstone  lie  immense  heaps  of  drifted 
sand.  But  it  is  on  the  western  side  of  the  promon- 
tory of  New  Kaye,  in  Fishel  Bay,  that  the  geologist 
will  be  most  struck  with  this  formation,  for  here  no 


CORNWALL    SANDSTONE. 


187 


other  rock  is  in  sight.  The  cliffs,  which  are  high, 
and  extend  for  several  miles,  are  entirely  composed 
of  it ;  they  are  occasionally  intersected  by  veins  and 
dykes  of  breccia.  In  the  cavities,  calcareous  sta- 
lactites of  rude  appearance,  opaque,  and  of  a  grey 
colour,  hang  suspended.  The  beach  is  covered  with 
disjointed  fragments,  which  have  been  detached 
from  the  cliffs  above,  and  many  of  which  weigh 
two  or  three  tons.'* 


Astreea. 

(Found  on  South 
Australian  coast.) 


Fasoicutaria. 
(Now  found  on  South  Australian  coast.) 

The  sand  of  our  Australian  coast  appears  to  have 
been  washed  up  from  the  sea,  and  not  derived  from 
a  hurricane.  It  is  important  to  enquire  how;  for 
though  sand  on  coasts  is  a  very  ordinary  thing,  yet 
the  large  quantities  of  it  here  are  worth  some  at- 
tention. Some  must  be  derived  from  the  rocks  that 
are  being  washed  away,  and  the  rest  from  the  shells 
and  corals  which  frequent  the  shore.  There  is  an 
Astrcea  rather  common  on  the  coast,  and  some  Nul- 


*  From  a  Memoir  by  Dr.  Paris,  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal 
Geological  Society  of  Cornwall. 


188  SAND    DUNES. 

lipores  exceedingly  so.  Corallines  are  also  very 
often  met  with,  including  probably  the  rare  Fasci- 
cularia* The  fragments  of  these,  broken  small  by 
the  beach  surf,  raise  the  mounds  of  sand  in  such 
small  quantities  that  it  soon  dries  and  remains 
light  without  consolidating:  the  wind  carries  it 
farther  inland. 

It  is  to  be  remarked,  that  a  coral  shore  always 
gives  rise  to  a  calcareous  sand.  Thus,  in  the  atolls, 
the  sea  breaks  upon  the  living  coral,  and  then 
spreads  over  a  sort  of  terrace  composed  of  the  har- 
dened calcareous  sandstone  before  alluded  to. 
Finally,  it  washes  up  a  belt  of  sand  upon  which  the 
cocoa-nut  palm  and  shrubs  grow.  The  sand-hills 
thus  raised  are  described  as  being  loose,  white,  and 
calcareous,  seldom  rising  to  more  than  twelve  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  banks  on  the  Aus- 
tralian coast  do  not  rise  very  high.  Occasionally, 
indeed,  a  mound  will  attain  the  height  of  150  feet, 
or  sand  may  drift  until  it  forms  a  slope  of  even 
much  greater  altitude,  but  the  general  nature  of 
such  formations  is  low  and  even.  * 

This  sand,  where  it  accumulates  on  large  sand 
drives,  is  very  yellow  in  colour,  and  seems  to  consist 
almost  entirely  of  the  broken  fragments  of  shells. 
On  most  parts  of  the  coast  it  is  white  and  rather 
fine.  Under  the  microscope  this  latter  is  very  in- 

*  The  Fascicularia  was  thought  to  be  peculiar  to  the  Crag,  and  a 
characteristic  fossil.  The  one  engraved  is  common  enough  on  the 
coast,  though,  curiously  enough,  it  is  not  found'as  a  fossil  in  the  Mount 
Gambier  limestone.  It  must  be  said,  however,  that  it  does  not  corres- 
pond in  every  particular  with  the  Fascicularia  of  the  Crag. 


SAND   DUNES.  189 

teresting.  It  teems  with  the  remains  of  animal  life. 
First,  the  spines  of  Asteridce  and  Echini  are  easily 
separated;  then  come  fragments  of  Bryozoa  and 
shells.  After  this,  Foraminifera  are  traced,  some- 
times of  a  size  sufficiently  large  to  be  picked  out 
with  the  help  of  a  small  pocket-lens,  sometimes  so 
minute  as  to  be  with  the  utmost  difficulty  trans- 
ferred to  the  microscope ;  but  the  most  common  (so 
much  so,  that  the  sand  may  be  said  to  consist 
principally  of  it)  are  sponge  spicula,  as  clear  as 
glass  and  of  every  shape,  but  mostly  circular  and 
triradiate.  The  proportion  of  mere  inorganic  si- 
lex  is  very  small,  so  that  these  immense  masses 
of  sand  which  belt  the  coast  for  thousands  of  miles 
may  be  regarded  as  a  mass  of  microscopic  organi- 
sation. How  many  millions  of  animals  must  they 
not  contain ! 

Thus  far  one  feature  of  the  coast.  It  has  been 
said  just  now  that  limestone  is  uncommon  on  these 
hills;  and  indeed,  wherever  it  is  seen,  it  is  only  in 
breaks  in  the  banks  which  cover  it :  but  at  a  moderate 
depth,  and  even  on  the  tops  of  the  hills,  for  twelve 
miles  inland,  on  the  crag  sometimes,  and  composing 
hill-sides  itself  in  some  places,  a  smooth  white  lime- 
stone is  found,  very  compact  and  pure.  This  is 
another  formation  which  overlays  the  upper  crag. 
From  the  crag  it  may  be  distinguished  by  its  never 
being  granular,  and  from  the  coralline  by  being 
more  compact,  and  of  a  dull  yellow  colour  ap- 
proaching to  brown.  It  is  never  more  than  about 
three  feet  thick,  sometimes  not  even  so  much.  This 


190  RECENT  LIMESTONE. 

makes  it  directly  the  opposite  to  the  coralline 
rock,  which  is  always  (except  where  the  strata  thin 
out)  of  very  considerable  thickness ;  the  difference 
is  owing  to  the  different  circumstances  under  which 
they  were  formed.  The  coralline  was  deposited 
during  a  period  of  subsidence,  when  the  strata  had 
ample  time  and  fauna  to  thicken  it,  and  no  dis- 
turbing cause.  The  Post-Pleiocene  (as  we  shall 
henceforth  term  the  deposit)  was  spread  out  over 
rocks  which  were  continually  being  taken  out  of 
the  reach  of  the  waves  by  upheaval,  and  therefore 
could  not  attain  any  considerable  thickness. 

As  it  is,  however,  it  is  full  of  shells,  but  little 
altered  in  the  composition  from  what  they  were 
when  in  the  sea,  sometimes  even  preserving  their 
colours,  and  all  of  them  of  species  that  are  now 
found  on  the  coast.  It  is  as  well  to  observe  here 
that  this  shelly  limestone  often  overlays  the  upper 
crag,  and  therefore  adds  another  argument  against 
the  subaerial  nature  of  that  deposit.  The  shells, 
though  strictly  identical  with  those  of  the  coast, 
are  not  in  the  same  proportionate  num- 
bers. Thus  a  person  might  dig  for  hours 
around  the  rock,  and  yet  find  nothing 
but  a  Venus  exalbata  and  a  Cerithium.* 
Now  these  shells,  though  common  on  the 
coast,  are  far  from  being  the  most  common. 
What  most  frequently  is  found  upon  this 
part  of  the  South  Australian  shore  is  a  large 

*  Sometimes  immense  masses  of  rock  are  formed  entirely  by  the 
shell  represented  in  the  engraving. 


RECENT   LIMESTONE.  191 

Trochus,  also  a  Conus  and  a  Littorina,  and 
these  are  rarely  met  with  in  the  strata.  These 
facts  show  that  some  alteration  has  taken  place 
in  the  coast  fauna  since  the  rocks  were  depo- 
sited. 

The  place  where  the  deposit  is  seen  to  best  ad- 
vantage is  on  a  range  which,  without  exception, 
runs  from  two  to  twelve  miles  all  round  the  coast, 
from  the  Coorong  to  within  a  few  miles  of  Portland, 
in  Victoria.  But  it  is  not  confined  to  this  range ; 
sometimes  between  it  and  the  sea  there  is  another 
and  less  extensive  line  of  hills,  and  then  the  space 
between  them  is  a  flat  filled  with  salt  and  fresh- 
water lakes.  These  flats  and  the  hills  between  them 
and  the  sea  are  covered  with  the  same  recent  shells, 
but  there  is  no  limestone  except  in  patches  here  and 
there  on  the  edges  of  the  lakes  or  on  some  low  hills, 
and  the  shells  (for  they  can  scarcely  be  called 
fossils)  lie  in  loose  sand  or  in  thick  beds  with  little 
or  no  sand.  It  is  impossible  to  exaggerate  the 
enormous  quantities  of  shells  which  are  sometimes 
seen  on  the  flats.  The  roads  are  in  consequence 
firm  and  dry,  just  like  the  shelly  walks  of  a  park, 
and  when  occasionally  a  strong  wind  tears  up  a 
tree  by  the  roots,  the  fibres  have  become  so  inter- 
laced writh  these  spoils  of  the  ocean  as  to  look  like 
some  large  article  of  fancy-work.  On  the  coast, 
too,  amid  the  sand-hills,  shells  are  again  seen,  not 
lying  here  and  there,  as  though  brought  by  human 
agency,  but  regularly  stratified  into  the  masb,  so  as 
to  show,  when  exposed,  regular  layers  like  strata. 


192  POST-PLEIOCENE   DEPOSITS. 

It  may  be  remarked,  in  passing,  that  this  fact  affords 
another  proof  that  the  crag  cannot  owe  its  origin  to 
the  hardening  of  drift  sand,  as  sea- shells  are  never 
found  whole  in  it,  and  even  the  fragments  of  such 
are  not  regularly  stratified ;  but  here  we  have  sand 
clearly  owing  its  origin  to  drift,  with  regular 
layers  of  sea-shells,  thinly  scattered,  it  is  true,  but 
showing  that  each  portion  which  was  exposed  was 
liable  to  have  sea-shells  deposited  upon  it. 

Returning  now  to  the  range  parallel  with  the 
coast,  sea-shells  are  found  upon  the  flat  at  its  back. 
How  much  farther  inland  they  are  seen  I  cannot 
precisely  say,  but  they  have  been  found  by  me  em- 
bedded in  limestone  at  least  seventeen  miles  away 
from  the  sea.  It  will  be  remembered,  that  in 
describing  the  features  of  the  south-eastern  dis- 
trict, a  series  of  ranges,  running  north  and  south, 
about  twelve  miles  apart,  with  flats  between, 
were  spoken  of.  These  will  have  to  be  referred 
to  again  when  speaking  of  upheaval,  as  probably 
they  have  all  formerly  been  coast  lines.  Now 
the  flat  at  the  back  of  the  range  nearest  the 
coast  is  more  or  less  covered  with  shells,  as  just 
stated,  but  they  are  found  in  a  peculiar  manner. 
The  soil  is  soft  black  or  whitish  clay,  and  the  lime- 
stone does  not  lie  continuously  underneath,  but 
here  and  there  are  patches  '  caked'  into  the  surface, 
just  as  if  it  had  dried  on  the  margin  of  a  lake.  The 
fossils,  too,  are  of  a  mingled  description,  being 
partly  fresh  water  and  partly  marine. 

Now  this  flat  was  in  all  probability  an  estuary, 


POST-PLEIOCENE    DEPOSITS.  1.93 

because  at  one  place,  where  the  fresh- water  shells 
are  commonest,  there  is  a  gap  in  the  range  about 
six  miles  in  width.  This  gap  is  at  present  occupied 
by  an  immense  morass  called  Lake  Hawdon,  which 
is  much  longer  than  its  width,  and  which  is  nar- 
rowest at  the  above-mentioned  gap.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  range  (let  us,  for  convenience,  call  it 
the  Stone  Hut  Range,  by  which  name  it  is  known 
by  residents)  has,  until  very  recently,  been  a  coast 
range.  The  shells  on  its  summit,  the  shell  banks 
to  'the  west  of  it,  and  the  smooth  even  way  it  is 
washed  on  the  coast  side,  besides  having  the  stone 
perforated  by  the  Lithodomi  on  the  same  side,  all 
declare  this.  The  gap  then  would  allow  an  opening 
to  the  flat  behind,  which  would  be  alternately  filled 
with  salt  and  brackish  water,  for  the  quantity  of 
fresh  water  which  settles  on  these  flats  in  the  rainy 
season  would  materially  affect  an  inlet  which  only 
received  occasional  accessions  from  the  sea,  and  this 
we  may,  from  the  shallowness  of  the  gap,  suppose 
to  have  been  the  case. 

Traces  of  recent  shells  have  been  found,  more  or 
less,  on  all  the  ranges  to  a  distance  of  fiftymiles  from 
the  coast ;  farther  than  this  they  do  not,  however, 
extend,  and  the  country  becomes  volcanic.  We  will 
now  confine  ourselves  to  those  localities  nearer  the 
coast,  where  the  shells  are  loose  and  numerous,  and 
attended  with  peculiarities  which  will  demand  some 
lengthened  consideration.  Before  doing  so,  there 
are  a  few  remarks  to  be  made  with  reference  to  the 
deposits  where  the  shells  are  embedded  in  the  lime- 

o 


194  POST-PLEIOCENE   DEPOSITS. 

stone.  It  can  hardly  be  called  a  formation,  because 
as  yet  it  is  not  completed,  and  the  sea  is  even  now 
stratifying  the  same  fauna  into  limestone  on  the 
coast.  It  is  a  thing  of  the  present  rather  than  the 
past.  Although  I  have  examined  several  hundred 
specimens,  I  have  not  found  one  that  does  not  exist 
at  present  on  the  coast.  It  is  true,  as  before  stated, 
that  some  species  are  not  so  common  now  in  the 
same  localities  as  they  were  when  parts  of  the  lime- 
stone were  forming,  but  there  is  no  difference 
between  them. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  most  common 
genera  now  found  at  Guichen  Bay.  Those  marked 
with  an  asterisk  are  very  common  in  the  limestone, 
and  those  marked  with  a  cross  are  most  common 
on  the  coast : — +Purpura,  Fasciolaria,  Haliotis, 
+  Turbo,  +  Conus,  Bulla,  Ampulla,  Natica,  Pectun- 
culus,  Hyponix,  *  Venus,  Iridina,  Nerita,  Panopcea, 
Pleurotoma,  Fissurella,  Cerithium,  Turritella,  Cy- 
prcea,  Nassa,  Trochus,  *  Phasianella,  *  Valuta, 
Mactra,  Donax,  Ostrcea.  Very  many  of  these  are 
common  to  both,  and,  though  none  are  present  in 
the  limestone  and  absent  on  the  coast,  some  are  ab- 
sent in  the  limestone  which  are  very  common  on 
the  coast.  The  limestone  in  which  they  are  found 
makes  excellent  lime,  and  is  a  good  and  durable 
building  stone,  easily  dressed. 

The  coast  is  the  locality  where  the  circumstances 
under  which  the  deposit  has  been  formed  are  best 
understood.  A  reference  to  the  accompanying  map 
will  show  better  than  a  description  how  the  whole 


COAST   LAKES.  195 

of  this  part  of  the  South  Australian  coast  is  covered 
with  lakes  and  inlets,  not  running  up  into  the  in- 
terior, as  in  a  mountainous  country,  but  having  their 
greatest  lengths  parallel  with  the  coast.  There  is 
the  Coorong,  which  is  an  arm  of  the  sea,  having 
its  opening  not  very  far  from  the  Murray  Mouth, 
running  parallel  with  the  sea  in  a  narrow  steep  for 
miles,  and  terminating  in  a  little  creek  which  runs 
some  distance  inland.  There  is  only  a  narrow  strip 
of  sand-hills  between  this  singular  piece  of  water 
and  the  sea  for  the  whole  distance  ;  in  fact,  it  looks 
more  like  a  fringing  reef  to  the  coast  than  anything 
else.  Next  comes  a  little  series  of  lakes,  which  are 
hardly  worth  mentioning,  any  more  than  that  they 
bear  out  on  a  small  scale  the  prevailing  character 
of  this  coast.  Next  comes  Lake  Hawdon,  which, 
as  I  have  said,  is  more  a  morass  than  a  lake,  and 
which  is  an  exception  to  the  general  rule,  of  the 
greatest  length  being  parallel  with  the  coast  line ; 
but,  as  it  once  evidently  occupied  a  part  of  the  flat 
behind  the  Stone  Hut  Range,  and  probably  ex- 
tended a  long  way  behind,  this  exception  is  more 
apparent  than  real. 

Next  in  succession  comes  Lake  Eliza,  a  fine 
sheet  of  salt  water,  very  shallow,  and  rapidly 
drying  up.  This  latter  lake  is  separated  by  a 
very  small  strip  of  land  from  Lake  St.  Glair, 
which  is  smaller  than  the  former,  but  possesses 
much  the  same  features.  Then  there  is  Lake 
George,  an  irregularly-formed  sheet  of  fresh 
water,  whose  banks  are  reedy  and  mudd}^.  It  has 

o  2 


196  COAST   LAKES. 

two  or  three  fresh- water  creeks  leading  into  it,  but 
there  is  no  apparent  outlet  between  it  and  the  sea. 
Finally,  there  is  Lake  Bonney,  a  long  narrow  sheet 
of  fresh  water,  twenty -five  miles  long,  but  in  few 
places  more  than  about  two  miles  broad ;  it  is  shal- 
low, and  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  moderately 
high  banks. 

As  all  these  lakes  have  distinct  peculiarities,  a 

separate  description  for  each  will  be  necessary,  more 

especially  the  last   one  mentioned,  which   has  so 

many  various  features  as  to  be  well  worth  attentive 

consideration.     Let  it  be  remarked,  however,  that 

though  some  of  these  lakes  are  marshy  while  others 

are  clear  and  open,  some  fresh  and  some  salt,  they 

mostly  lie  in  the  flat  which  runs  between  the  coast 

range  and  the  sea.     It  may  also  be  stated,  that  at 

Guichen  Bay,  there  is  a  small  range  very  close  to 

the  coast,  and  between  this  and  the  sea  there  exists 

a  succession  of  small  lagoons,  some  deep,  with  steep 

banks,  while  others  are  mere  shallow  pools.     The 

water  in  them  is  fresh,  or  nearly  so.     Kound  their 

edges  there  is  a  stone  in  course  of  formation,  which 

will  account  for  the  patches  of  limestone  that  are 

occasionally  met  with  in  the  flats  farther  inland. 

From  the  appearance  of  the  edges  of  these  lagoons 

one  would  naturally  conclude  that  they  were  salt, 

for  they  have  all  round  a  white  crust  just  like  salt. 

This  crust  is  a  sort  of  white  lime  and  clay,  quite 

hard  and  rough  (enamellated  like  mollipora  coral) 

for  about  an  inch,  but  underneath  soft  and  boggy 

to  a  considerable  depth.    It  is  full  of  shells,  mostly 

marine,  but  some  fresh-water,  and  contains  abun- 


COAST   LAKES.  197 

dance  of  a  white  chara  or  conferva,  which  grows 
plentifully  on  the  lagoons.  A  person  may  in  some 
places  walk  to  the  water's  edge  on  the  outer  crust, 
but  in  others  it  is  treacherous,  and  underneath  the 
white  sand  is  so  deep  as  to  render  any  submersion 
rather  dangerous.  Melaleuca  and  mangrove  shrubs 
frequently  grow  on  the  edges,  and  their  roots,  &c., 
sometimes  remain  in  the  stone  and  mud  beneath. 

It  can  easily  be  seen  how  the  study  of  localities 
such  as  these  may  throw  a  light  upon  peculiarities 
in  the  flats  far  removed  from  the  sea.  If,  hereafter, 
upheaval  should  move  these  lagoons  farther  inland, 
they  will  dry  up,  and  these  large  sheets  of  thin 
laminated  limestone,  enamellated  or  botryoidal  on 
the  surface,  and  containing  shells  —  such  limestone 
as  now,  in  fact,  is  found  farther  from  the  sea  —  will 
be  the  result.  The  banks  round  these  lagoons  ^re 
not  high,  and  in  very  rough  weather  the  sea  has 
been  known  to  rise  above  the  sand-hills  which  fringe 
the  coast,  and  rush  into  them,  thus  making  their 
character  alternate  between  salt  and  fresh  water. 

To  commence  with  the  Coorong,  a  glance  at  its 
appearance  as  it  is  shown  upon  the  map  would  lead 
one  to  believe  that  it  has  formerly  been  a  fringing 
reef,  whose  corals  have  been  destroyed  by  upheaval. 
Such  is  the  aspect  of  fringing  reefs  in  the  Mauri- 
tius which  have  undergone  that  change,  and  they 
are  described  as  mere  sandbanks,  which  lie  far  out 
to  sea,  more  like  the  earthwork  of  a  fortification 
than  anything  else.  I  have  never  been  'able  to 
give  a  sufficiently  minute  examination  to  affirm 
this  positively,  but  I  can  see  one  or  two  objections 


198  THE    COORONG. 

to  the  hypothesis.  Coral  such  as  would  form  frin- 
ging reefs  does  not  occur  in  any  part  of  the  south 
coast  at  present,  neither  has  coral  ever  been  found 
in  situ  on  the  Coorong  itself.  Again,  a  reef  of  this 
description  must  necessarily  have  given  rise  to  a 
coral  de'bris  farther  inland,  and  this  also  is  want- 
ing. Another  more  probable  theory  may,  perhaps, 
explain  this  interesting  geographical  feature.  It 
may  have  been  a  long  sandbank  under  the  sea, 
which  has  been  raised  by  upheaval,  while  the 
intervening  low  land  between  it  and  the  coast  is 
as  yet  covered  by  water. 

The  basis  of  the  bank  may  be  a  barrier  reef  of 
the  crag  period,  which  would  serve  as  an  obstruc- 
tion upon  which  sand  would  gather,  or  it  may 
have  been  an  outcropping  ridge  of  rock,  but,  at 
any  rate,  its  texture  and  general  features  ren- 
der the  bank  theory  far  more  probable  and  con- 
sistent with  its  appearance.  Some  persons  have 
imagined  that  it  was  the  former  bed  of  the  Murray, 
but  an  inspection  of  its  bank,  as  well  as  its  south 
termination,  will  at  once  show  that  this  view  is 
quite  untenable. 

From  the  Coorong,  the  next  lake  of  any  im- 
portance to  the  south  is  Lake  Hawdon.  This  has 
been  already  described.  It  may  be  added,  that  it 
is,  with  small  exceptions,  covered  with  long  dense 
reeds,  and  that  while  at  its  western  end  sea-shells 
abound,  at  its  eastern  there  are  some  fresh-water 
and  sea-shells  intermixed. 

From  Lake  Hawdon  to  Lake  Eliza  is  about  six 


LAKES   ELIZA,    ETC.  199 

miles.  The  latter  is  a  good  broad  sheet  of  sea-green 
water,  with  a  fine  sandy  bottom  some  miles  long,  and 
nowhere  deeper  than  about  eight  feet.  It  is  rapidly 
drying  up.  This  is  presumed  from  the  banks, 
which  are  very  flat  for  a  long  way  round  the 
edges,  sometimes  a  mile,  covered  with  black  mud 
and  the  caked  limestone  already  described  when 
the  lagoons  were  spoken  of.  Long  before  the 
water  is  reached,  the  banks  become  marshy,  and 
are  covered  with  a  very  dense  thicket  of  mela- 
leuca,  callistemon,  mangrove,  &c.,  and  the  whole 
of  the  black  mud,  as  well  as  the  dry  banks,  are 
covered  with  sea-shells  as  thickly  as  the  coast,  and 
even  more  so. 

Lake  St.  Clair  is  only  divided  from  Lake  Eliza 
by  a  narrow  strip  of  land,  which  is  sandy,  and  as 
thickly  covered  with  shells  as  any  other  part.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  they  formed  one  lake  within  a 
very  recent  period,  because,  supposing  the  water  only 
to  have  extended  as  far  as  the  black  mud  and  shells 
round  Lake  Eliza  showed  that  it  did  extend,  there 
would  have  been  quite  sufficient  to  have  covered 
the  line  of  division  between  them.  In  that  case, 
they  would  have  formed  one  long  strip  of  water 
smaller  than  the  Coorong,  but  somewhat  similar  to 
Lake  Bonney. 

It  may  have  been  connected  with  the  sea,  suppo- 
sing the  water  to  have  been  much  higher  (for  which 
supposition  there  is  good  reason),  for  though  be- 
tween one  part  of  the  lakes  and  the  sea  th^re  is  a 
high  range  of  sand-hills'and  limestone  ridges,  at  the 


200  ANCIENT   BEACH. 

northern  end  there  is  only  a  low  marshy  flat  fringed 
with  sand-hills,  and  running  to  one  or  two  lakes 
which  are  more  or  less  connected,  until  the  sand- 
hills of  the  coast  are  reached.  The  soil  on  this 
flat  is  black,  and  supports  a  rank  grass,  but  sea- 
shells  are  seen  on  the  surface,  and  at  a  very  small 
depth  below  they  abound.  If  this  was  an  arm 
of  the  sea,  and  Lakes  Eliza  and  St.  Clair  were  a 
deep  bay,  the  Stone  Hut  Range,  which  rises 
to  several  hundred  feet  above  the  sea-level,  must 
have  been  a  beach,  and  never  were  signs  more 
strikingly  visible  than  those  which  still  remain  to 
give  proof  of  the  fact. 

The  hills  rise  abruptly  from  the  beautiful  level 
flat  (except  a  gentle  slope  up  to  them,  as  in  all 
beaches),  and  the  limestone  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed is  washed  smooth  and  clean,  besides  being 
perforated  at  the  base  by^the  borings  of  Lithodomi. 
There  are  ample  marks  of  coast  action  on  the  stone, 
such  as  worn  and  weathered  surface,  deep  circular 
hollows  or  wells,  such  as  are  found  now  on  the  coast, 
and  lines  with  the  same  laminated  limestone.  There 
is  also,  at  the  foot,  a  deep  deposit  of  sand  and 
shells,  broken  and  comminuted  by  beach  action,  and 
finally,  what  is  most  convincing,  parts  of  the  salt 
water  of  Lake  Eliza  still  wash  the  foot  of  more 
southern  portions.  So  evenly  has  the  water  cut 
oiF  all  projections,  and  so  steep  has  it  washed 
the  approach  to  the  flats,  that  there  are  only  one 
or  two  places  where  a  passable  bush  road  can  be 
formed  through  them. 


THE   LAKES.  201 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  these  lakes,  it 
would  be  well  to  mention  that  they  would  have 
been  dried  up  long  ago,  were  it  not  for  the  ex- 
istence of  some  fresh  water,  more  particularly 
described  by  and  by.  At  present,  they  only  run 
in  particular  seasons  of  the  year,  and  therefore  are 
not  able  to  counteract  the  immense  evaporation 
which  goes  on,  so  that,  eventually,  the  lakes  may 
become  perfectly  dry,  and  give  rise  to  black  loamy 
flats  with  shells  interspersed,  such  as  are  now  met 
with  farther  inland. 

Next  in  succession,  proceeding  southwards  along 
the  coast,  we  meet  with  Lake  George.  This  is  an 
irregularly-formed  fresh-water  lake,  farther  inland 
than  these  lakes  usually  are,  and  bounded,  as  usual, 
on  its  eastern  side,  by  the  continuation  of  the 
Stone  Hut  Range. 

It  has  two  or  three  fresh-water  creeks  leading 
into  it,  but  none  leading  out.  This  is  a  peculiarity 
with  more  of  these  pieces  of  water ;  they  all  receive 
tributaries  of  some  kind,  but  have  no  outlet  be- 
tween them  and  the  sea,  and  this  may  be  accounted 
for  by  the  fact,  that  nearly  if  not  all  of  the  tribu- 
taries are  dry  during  the  summer  and  perhaps  the 
greater  portion  of  the  year,  and  the  amount  of 
water  gained  by  them  is  more  than  lost  by  eva- 
poration. In  fact,  all  the  lakes  bear  some  remote 
analogy  to  the  Dead  Sea  in  Palestine,  which  appears 
to  have  been  an  arm  of  the  sea  formerly,  and 
though  there  is  never  any  overflow  into  the  Red 
Sea,  it  receives  the  whole  waters  of  the  Jordan.  If 


2C2  LAKE    BONNEY. 

evaporation,  in  this  case,  can  consume  the  enormous 
supply  of  the  Jordan,  which  is  always  flowing, 
the  climate  of  this  part  of  Australia,  which  is  quite 
as  dry  and  rather  hotter  than  that  of  Palestine, 
can  easily  dispose  of  the  result  of  a  few  weeks' 
rain.  I  have  not  been  able  to  afford  time  for  a 
personal  examination  of  Lake  George,  but  I  am 
credibly  informed  that  it  is  like  most  of  the  others, 
and  has  a  deep  flat  of  black  mud  thickly  embedded 
with  shells  all  round  its  edge. 

Last  of  all  in  the  series  comes  Lake  Bonney, 
which,  with  the  exception  of  the  Coorong,  is  the 
most  important  of  all.  This,  as  before  stated,  is 
about  twenty-five  miles  long  and  only  about  two 
broad,  covering  an  area  of  rather  more  than  fifty 
square  miles.  Like  the  others  already  described,  it 
lies  between  coast  hills  which  lie  at  the  edge  of  the 
sea  and  a  continuation  of  the  Stone  Hut  Range. 
But  these  two  almost  seem  to  join  at  the  north 
and  south  ends,  or,  at  least,  are  nearly  continuous, 
by  a  low  line  of  sand-hills  which  lies  between. 
The  hills,  however,  on  each  side  are  almost  exclu- 
sively sandy,  and  seem  to  rise  to  their  greatest 
height  opposite  the  middle  of  the  lake.  Round  the 
water  the  appearances  are  very  similar  to  what 
is  observed  elsewhere;  that  is,  level  flats  covered 
with  black  mud,  limestone,  and  salt-water  shells. 

The  water  is  fresh  or  brackish,  and  very  shal- 
low. One  or  two  creeks,  as  usual,  flow  into  it, 
but  there  are  few  outlets.  Evaporation  goes  on 
very  rapidly,  but  it  may  be  long  before  it  dries  up, 


LAKE   BONNET.  203 

for  I  have  been  assured  that  about  ten  years  ago, 
after  an  unusually  dry  season,  the  greater  part 
of  the  bed  of  the  lakes  was  quite  dry,  so  that 
persons  have  ridden  across  parts  that  are  now 
completely  under  water.  To  such  an  extent  as 
twenty-five  miles  of  length,  it  might  be  expected 
that  there  would  be  great  variations  in  the  nature  of 
the  bank,  and,  accordingly,  while  some  are  flat  and 
grassy,  others  are  mere  barren  sand-hills,  which  rise 
rather  abruptly  from  the  bank,  but  there  are  no 
precipitous  sides,  nor,  as  far  as  I  could  learn,  any 
rocks  cropping  out  around  its  edge. 

There  is  one  peculiarity  worthy  of  attention 
at  the  back  of  the  hills  which  form  the  eastern 
or  inland  boundary  of  the  lake  ;  that  is,  a 
long  swamp  or  marsh,  which  runs  parallel  with 
the  hills  for  the  whole  length  of  the  lake.  This 
is  called  the  German  Flat,  and  is  about  twenty- 
five  miles  long  and  three  broad.  Here  and 
there,  places  may  be  found  where  it  is  passable, 
but,  in  general,  it  is  an  immense  quagmire,  thickly 
covered  over  with  dense  reeds.  The  most  super- 
ficial observation  will  convince  any  one  that  this 
has  been  a  reservoir  of  water  at  a  time  when  what 
is  now  the  inland  boundary  of  Lake  Bonney  was 
the  coast  line.  Very  likely,  it  was  the  drainage 
of  the  flat  which  lies  on  the  eastern  side  of  it  (for 
there  is  no  elevation  of  any  note  for  at  least  ten 
miles  inland),  which  congregated  there  when  the 
sea  had  thrown  up  the  hills,  and  probably  this 
water  occasionally  received  accessions  from  the 


204  LAKE    BONNET. 

sea  in  stormy  weather,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
lagoon  at  Guichen  Bay.  There  are,  however,  at  pre- 
sent, no  marine  shells  discoverable  in  it,  and  this 
might  be  expected,  because  the  complete  wall  which 
now  exists  between  it  and  Lake  Bonney  does  not 
give  room  for  the  belief  that  there  was  any  bay 
or  inlet  by  which,  as  in  the  case  of  Lakes  Eliza 
and  Hawdon,  the  sea  was  admitted,  until  very 
recently,  so  that,  had  there  been  any  shells,  they 
would  have  had  ample  time  for  decomposition  long 
before  this,  in  the  peculiar  mud  of  the  German  Flat. 

It  is  remarked  that  every  year  this  flat  gets  drier, 
and  the  land,  consequently,  more  available.  This 
may  be  due  to  a  greater  dryness  in  the  seasons  than 
those  which  formerly  prevailed — a  fact  to  which 
all  the  older  settlers  bear  testimony  —  or  it  may  be 
due  to  an  upheaval  of  the  land.  One  thing,  how- 
ever, is  certain,  and  that  is,  that  persons  who  have 
been  witness  to  the  great  changes  which  have  taken 
place  in  the  flat  since  their  first  location  near  it, 
confidently  look  forward  to  a  time  when  the  whole 
will  be  available  for  cultivation.  The  appearance 
of  the  flat  when  seen  from  Mount  Muirhead,  a  hill 
about  twelve  miles  distant,  is  that  of  a  red-brown 
strip  of  land  which  lies  like  a  desert  round  the  hills 
of  Lake  Bonney. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  the  lakes,  two 
must  be  mentioned,  which  lie  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Murray:  these  are,  Lake  Alexandrina  and 
Lake  Albert.  The  former  has  evidently  been  a 
deep  bay  at  the  remote  time  when  the  Murray 


UPHEAVAL.  205 

Mouth  was  at  its  northern  end.  It  is  a  shallow 
lake,  like  all  of  these,  and,  owing,  perhaps,  to  the  im- 
mense quantities  of  sediment  which  are  brought 
down  by  the  river,  is  becoming  gradually  more 
shallow.  At  the  southern  end,  the  Murray  Mouth 
runs  through  it  in  a  very  narrow  tortuous  channel, 
which  is  constantly  altering  in  depth,  owing  to  the 
sand  thrown  up  by  the  sea,  which  beats  outside. 
Lake  Albert  is  a  piece  of  water  adjoining  Lake 
Alexandrina,  and,  like  it,  appears  to  have  been  a  bay 
of  the  sea.  It  would  appear  as  if  both  these  lakes 
owed  their  origin  to  a  cause  like  that  which  formed 
the  Coorong.  The  upheaval  has  raised  from  the 
sea  certain  eminences  which  existed  underneath  the 
water  as  banks  or  shoal,  and  these  being  higher 
than  the  bottom  between  them  and  the  shore,  locked 
in  the  water  as  soon  as  they  were  above  its  level. 
Doubtless  the  hollow  of  the  lake  was  caused  by  the 
river,  and  the  sediment  brought  down  by  it  may 
have  caused  the  bank  which,  now  being  upheaved, 
forms  its  southern  boundary.  As  usual  in  these 
cases,  the  banks  of  both  lakes  abound  with  existing 
species  of  marine  shells,  showing  that  all  the  opera- 
tions which  have  taken  place  have  done  so  within 
a  recent  geological  period. 

Upheaval  of  the  Australian  Coast. — It  now  re- 
mains to  speak  of  that  which  has  been  so  often 
alluded  to  in  the  foregoing  chapter  as  a  certain  fact, 
namely,  that  of  upheaval.  After  having  shown 
that  the  whole  coast  round,  to  a  distance  of  several 
miles  inland,  is  covered  with  recent  shells,  and 


06  UPHEAVAL   OF    THE   COAST. 

further,  having  shown  that  the  drainage  of  the 
country  is  apparently  altering,  that  the  lakes  known 
to  have  been  formerly  filled  with  salt  water  are  now 
filling  up  with  fresh,  or  becoming  dry,  it  does  not 
require  any  very  great  extent  of  argument  to  prove 
the  upheaval  of  the  land.  But  there  are  other 
facts.  Let  us  pay  attention  to  the  coast-line  first. 
The  mere  outline  of  the  coast  seems  to  show 
what  has  taken  place.  The  very  fact  of  so  many 
salt-water  lakes  near  the  shore  which  are  not  found 
inland,  the  majority  of  them  being  filled  with  salt 
or  brackish  water,  and  having  their  greatest  lengths 
parallel  with  the  coast,  is  just  the  state  of  things  we 
can  suppose  as  having  arisen  from  a  coast  which 
the  sea  has  left;  and  when  we  take  into  considera- 
tion that  all  the  banks  of  these  lakes  are  covered 
with  marine  shells,  so  recently  derived  from  the 
sea  as  to  preserve  their  colours  in  many  cases,  any 
doubt  as  to  their  recent  recovery  from  the  sea  must 
be  entirely  removed. 

.  But  we  have  now  more  proof  than  even  this. 
Reefs  of  rocks  are  constantly  appearing  in  places 
where  there  were  none  previously.  At  Rivoli  Bay 
the  soundings  have  altered  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
make  a  new  survey  requisite.  It  was  known  that 
outside  this  bay  there  was  a  reef  of  rocks  running 
parallel  with  the  shore,  but  with  sufficiently  deep 
water  upon  it  for  small  ships  to  pass  over.  It  is 
now  stated  that  scarcely  any  vessel  can  pass  over 
it,  and  that  some  of  the  rocks  have  actually  ap- 
peared above  water. 


RIVOLI   BAY.  207 

Not  very  long  ago,  a  schooner,  named  the  Norali 
Creina,  was  lost  upon  that  part  of  the  coast,  and  the 
master  of  the  vessel  stated  that  the  rock  upon  which 
he  struck  was  not  marked  in  any  chart,  and  though 
he  had  been  a  very  long  time  upon  that  coast,  he 
had  never  seen  any  signs  of  a  reef  there  before 
over  which  a  small  vessel  could  not  pass  in  safety. 

Again,  at  Cape  Jaffa,  to  the  north  of  Guichen 
Bay,  there  is  a  dangerous  reef,  which  was  marked 
by  the  French  surveyors  more  than  fifty  years  ago 
as  extending  seven  miles  from  the  shore.  Some 
four  years  ago,  a  fresh  survey  was  made  by  the 
South  Australian  harbour-master,  and  the  reef  was 
found  to  exist  twelve  miles  from  the  shore,  and  a 
beacon  was  erected  thereon  at  that  distance.  I 
am  now  assured,  by  those  well  accustomed  to  this 
part  of  the  coast,  that  the  reef  extends  two  miles 
beyond  the  last  distance,  and  I  have  seen  broken 
water  at  least  a  mile  beyond  the  beacon. 

Nor  is  it  alone  to  this  part  of  the  coast  that  up- 
heaval has  been  remarked.  It  would  appear  that 
a  vast  movement  is  taking  place  in  the  whole  of  the 
south  part  of  Australia.  In  Melbourne,  the  obser- 
vations of  surveyors  and  engineers  have  all  tended 
to  confirm  this  remarkable  fact ;  in  Western  Aus- 
tralia, the  same  thing  is  observed ;  at  King  George's 
Sound,  the  same.  As,  however,  these  observations 
are  numerous,  I  must  confine  myself  alone  to  the 
colony  to  which  they  refer. 

In  1855,  a  railway  was  in  course  of  construction 
between  Port  Adelaide  and  the  city  of  Adelaide, 


208  UPHEAVAL    OF    THE    COAST. 

between  which  two  places  there  is  a  gently-rising 
plain,  about  eight  miles  across.  Mr.  Babbage,  the 
chief-engineer,  who  made  the  surveys  for  the  line, 
published  a  paper  to  show  that  there  was  an  actual 
difference  of  level  of  some  inches  between  his  first 
and  his  second  survey  of  the  respective  heights  of 
Adelaide  and  the  port.  As  the  difference  was  so 
small,  of  course  this  result  cannot  be  given  as 
certain,  because,  in  eight  miles  of  levelling,  errors 
might  easily  creep  up  to  that  amount. 

Under  the  city  of  Adelaide  there  is  a  thin  deposit 
of  shells,  containing  many  recent  species,  and  I  have 
found  on  hills  (many  hundred  feet  above  the  sea- 
level  beyond  Adelaide)  a  thin  deposit  of  limestone 
containing  shells  of  recent  species.  All  the  hills 
around  are  covered  for  some  distance,  at  least  above 
their  base,  with  limestone;  and  on  Tapley's  Hill, 
about  ten  miles  to  the  south-east  of  Adelaide,  there 
is  a  cutting  in  the  road,  about  1,000  feet  above  the 
sea-level,  which  shows  a  stratum  of  limestone, 
about  a  foot  thick,  lying  unconformably  on  highly- 
inclined  slates.  Though  I  have  met  with  no  fossils 
in  this,  I  have  no  doubt  that  it  is  of  the  same  period 
as  the  limestone  on  the  coast,  and  shows  that  the 
hills  have  been  raised  from  the  sea  within  a  very 
recent  period. 

The  rivers  in  this  part  of  South  Australia  all 
show  very  clearly  the  same  fact  of  upheaval.  It 
has  already  been  stated,  that  there  are  not  many  of 
these  geographical  blessings  in  South  Australia, 
and  those  that  are  called  so  are  more  deserving  of 


UPHEAVAL   OF   THE   COAST.  209 

the  names  of  creeks  than  rivers,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Murray.  This  latter  contains  most  undoubted 
proofs  of  the  upheaval  of  the  land.  When  Sturt 
first  sailed  down  it  in  1829,  he  remarked  that  the 
banks  must  have  formerly  overflowed  to  a  much 
greater  extent  than  they  did  in  his  time,  because  on 
each  side  of  the  actual  channel  there  was  a  flat  of 
marshy  land,  or  else  of  good  soil,  bounded  on  alter- 
nate sides  by  bluff  headlands,  all  of  which  appeared 
to  have  been  shaped  out  by  the  river,  though  it 
did  not  seem  to  come  near  them  at  the  time  Sturt 
passed.  These  appearances  certainly  showed  that 
the  channel  had  been  narrowed,  but  not  that  there 
was  at  any  time  a  greater  flow  of  water  in  the  river. 

Most  of  the  other  Australian  rivers  which  have 
sufficient  water  in  them  to  wear  much  into  the  soil 
show  the  same  feature.  The  Glenelg,  which  runs 
a  little  to  the  east  of  the  South  Australian  boundary, 
has  sometimes  very  large  flats  on  each  side  of  the 
stream,  which  has  generally  pretty  steep  banks, 
and  from  the  end  of  these  flats  hills  rise  in  some 
places  to  about  150  feet  above  them.  It  is  evident 
that  the  water  once  shaped  out  not  only  the  flats, 
but  divided  the  hills  which  bound  them.  It  is  true 
that  the  river  rises  in  winter  some  feet  above  the 
flats,  or  at  least  it  has  done  so  in  very  wet  seasons, 
but  it  never  comes  to  the  foot  of  the  hills,  much 
less  could  it  have  given  them  their  present  shape. 

Not  only  here,  but  also  at  the  Murray  river,  there 
is  ample  evidence  that  the  cliffs  on  opposite  sides 
of  the  river  were  united,  and,  what  is  more  remark- 

P 


210  EVIDENCE   FROM   RIVERS. 

able,  they  are  sometimes  composed  of  pretty  hard 
limestone,  showing  very  clearly  that  the  river,  if  it 
cut  through  them,  must  have  had  a  long  time  for 
its  operations. 

Again,  on  the  river  Wannon,  a  tributary  of  the 
Glenelg,  there  are  beautiful  alluvial  flats  on  each 
side  of  the  stream,  and  some  parts  are  studded 
with  round  hills,  which  prove,  by  horizontal  in- 
dentations round  them,  that  a  stream  of  water 
gave  them  their  present  form.  From  all  these 
circumstances,  it  was  very  natural  to  conclude 
that  this  country  had  been  subject  to  greater 
inundations  than  it  is  at  present,  and  this  was,  in 
general,  the  way  in  which  the  above  appearances 
were  accounted  for,  but  the  real  cause  has  been 
upheaval.  It  can  easily  be  seen,  that  when  the 
inclination  of  a  river  channel  is  but  slight,  the 
waters  will  cover  a  larger  area,  but  with  a  less 
depth  ;  but,  as  the  fall  becomes  greater  and  the 
current  more  rapid,  it  will  have  more  effect  upon 
the  ground,  will  rapidly  scoop  out  a  deep  bed  for 
itself,  and  narrow  its  channel,  which  will  of  course 
be  deeper  in  proportion  to  its  narrowness. 

That  something  like  this  does  take  place  may 
be  seen  from  a  river  in  its  early  stage  of  develope- 
ment,  not  very  far  from  the  coast.  At  the  foot  of 
Mount  Graham,  about  forty-five  miles  from  Gui- 
chen  Bay,  there  is  a  large  morass  of  very  deep 
black  mud.  This  trends  away  along  the  east  side 
of  a  range  of  hills,  in  a  north-westerly  direction, 
until  it  becomes,  in  a  mile  or  so,  a  perfect  channel, 


FROM    THE    REEDY   CREEK.  211 

about  half  a  mile  wide,  containing  little  or  no 
water,  but  very  boggy,  and  covered  with  reeds.  It 
continues  on  in  the  same  width  for  many  miles, 
until  it  becomes  a  stream,  which  empties  itself  into 
the  Salt  Creek  and  thence  into  the  Coorong.  In 
winter,  a  small  amount  of  water  drains  off  in  the 
centre  of  the  morass  after  the  first  five  or  six  miles, 
and  the  stream  becomes  more  copious  as  it  pro- 
ceeds farther,  but  the  general  character  of  the 
creek  is  a  great  morass,  many  miles  in  length,  and 
varying  in  width  from  half  a  mile  to  200  yards,  and 
running  for  its  whole  length  at  the  foot  of  the 
range.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  as  the  land  be- 
comes more  upheaved,  and  the  river  has  a  greater 
declivity  down  the  coast,  the  drainage  will  be 
better,  so  that  not  only  will  water  flow  more 
rapidly,  but  there  will  be  a  larger  quantity  to  run 
through  it.  This  will  not  be  long  scooping  out  a 
deep  bed  in  the  soft  mud  which  at  present  lines 
the  bottom,  and  then  there  will  be  presented  the 
same  appearance  which  is  assumed  now  by  most  of 
the  Australian  rivers. 

The  range,  at  the  foot  of  which  the  Creek  now 
lies,  will  be  separated  from  the  stream  by  a  low 
reedy  flat,  sloping  down  to  the  precipitous  banks 
which  will  bound  the  water.  The  same  flat  will 
be  present  on  the  other  side,  each  of  them  probably 
indented  with  marks  of  various  water-levels,  and 
then  it  will  seem  as  if  the  country  were  subject  to 
extraordinary  inundations,  swelling  the  river  to 
half  a  mile  in  width,  when,  in  reality,  the  appear- 

p  2 


212  THE    REEDY    CREEK. 

ances  are  due  to  there  being  at  one  time  scarcely 
any  flow  of  water  at  all. 

When  we  bear  in  mind  the  state  of  such  embryo 
rivers  as  the  Reedy  Creek,  we  come  to  understand 
easily  how  it  is  that  the  banks  of  some  streams  are 
composed  of  high  cliffs  of  soft  earthy  clay,  which, 
as  they  sometimes  fall  in  from  floods  or  other 
causes,  disclose  the  bones  of  land  animals  and  fresh- 
water shells.  Such  remains  as  these  must  have 
became  embedded  when  the  stream  was  in  its  first 
stage  of  formation,  when  the  still  water  sank 
deeply  into  the  underlying  rock,  and  decomposed 
it,  mingling  its  own  decomposed  vegetable  soil 
with  the  rocky  clay,  and  giving  rise  to  a  morass, 
in  which  animals  became  buried. 

This  actually  takes  place  in  the  Reedy  Creek  at 
present,  for  it  is  not  at  all  uncommon  for  cattle 
and  horses  to  become  '  bogged,'  and  to  die  in  the 
mud,  either  in  an  attempt  to  reach  water  in  the 
summer  weather,  or  from  feeding  on  treacherous 
ground.  I  do  not  know  whether  there  is  any  other 
place  where  a  river  can  be  seen  in  the  very  first 
stage  of  its  formation,  and  the  cursory  examina- 
tion that  I  have  been  able  to  afford  convinces 
me  that  a  great  many  anomalies  in  the  post-ter- 
tiary period  might  be  cleared  up  by  an  attentive 
examination  of  what  takes  place  during  a  rapid 
upheaval  of  the  land. 

The  mention  of  rapid  upheaval  reminds  me  of  a 
question  that  might  be  asked,  namely,  whether 
there  is  simply  evidence  that  upheaval  has  taken 


EARTHQUAKES.  213 

place  within  a  very  recent  period,  or  whether  it  is 
thought  that  the  process  is  still  going  on. 

The  facts  I  have  mentioned  with  reference  to  the 
appearance  of  reefs,  the  alteration  of  the  sound- 
ings, the  drying  up  of  the  lakes,  would  seem  to 
bear  out  the  view  that  the  process  is  still  going  on. 
Add  to  this,  the  shocks  of  earthquakes  have  not 
been  at  all  uncommon  in  various  parts  of  the  south 
coast  of  Australia,  and  these  phenomena  are  gene- 
rally supposed  to  be  more  or  less  connected  with 
actual  upheaval. 

A  severe  shock  of  an  earthquake  was  felt  in 
Melbourne  in  1855;  another  severe  shock  was  felt 
in  Adelaide  in  June  1856.*  Slight  shocks  have 
been  felt  from  time  to  time  in  various  localities  to 
the  north  of  Adelaide ;  and  there  are  many  re- 
cords of  earthquakes  having  been  felt  in  different 
parts  of  the  three  colonies  within  the  last  twenty- 
two  years ;  so  that  it  would  appear  that  the  present 
is  not  a  tranquil  period  in  the  subterranean  forces, 
but  that  they  are  still  in  activity,  and  upheaval  -is 
still  going  on.  It  is  not  to  be  doubted,  however, 
that  there  have  been  many  periods  of  rest  since  the 
upheaval  first  commenced ;  indeed,  there  is  actual 
evidence  of  many  such  periods,  some  of  which 
must  be  noticed  as  bearing  directly  upon  the  coun- 
try already  described. 

At  the  head  of  Spencer's  Gulf,  to  the  north-west 
of  Adelaide,  where  there  are  evident  signs  of  up- 

*  A  smart  shock  of  an  earthquake  was  felt  on  the   Stone  Hut 
Bange  in  December  1861. 


214  SPENCER'S  GULF. 

heaval,  such  as  the  reduction  of  the  gulf  to  a  very 
narrow  channel  of  about  two  miles  and  more  from 
the  high  cliffs  which  bound  it,  there  are  also  un- 
equivocal signs  of  long  periods  of  rest.  These  are 
shown  in  three  deep  indentations  which  form 
parallel  lines  in  the  cliffs  which  bound  the  gulf,  and 
run  along  it  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach.  These 
may  be  presumed  to  have  been  caused  by  the  water, 
which  ate  deeply  into  the  cliffs  during  a  long  period 
of  tranquillity. 

The  evidence  of  the  same  tranquil  periods  occurs 
in  the  district  to  which  this  book  refers,  but  they 
are  neither  so  obvious,  at  first  sight,  nor  quite  so 
certain. 

It  will  be  remembered,  that  in  other  chapters 
this  district  was  described  as  an  immense  plain, 
divided  every  ten  miles  or  so  by  ridges  which  ran 
in  a  way  which  seem  to  follow  the  coast  line  with 
only  occasional  deviations.  The  principal  of  these 
are  six  in  number,  between  the  coast  line  and  the 
colony  of  Victoria,  where  they  cease.  I  mentioned 
that  the  greater  part  of  them  are  mere  ridges  of 
sand,  with  limestone  rock  appearing  occasionally 
between ;  but  what  is  rather  remarkable,  they  un- 
dulate and  divide  into  hillocks  somewhat  on  their 
western  or  seaward  side,  while  on  their  eastern 
they  rise  rather  abruptly  from  the  plain.  Where- 
ever  limestone  is  seen  on  them,  or  the  west  side,  it 
has  all  the  marks  of  coast  action,  such,  for  instance, 
as  borings  of  Lithodomi,  circular  pits  lined  with 
lamellar  limestone  and  other  similar  signs,  besides 


THE    LIMESTONE    KIDGES.  215 

having  the  limestone  much  worn  and  eaten  away 
into  caves,  contrary,  occasionally,  to  the  dip  of  the 
strata.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  western 
side  of  each  of  these  ranges  has  successively  been 
a  beach,  and  possibly  they  may  owe  their  origin 
entirely  to  periods  of  rest  in  the  upheaval. 

Thus  there  would  have  been  six  periods  of  rest 
in  the  upheaval,  during  which  time  the  sea  had 
time  to  heap  up  sand  and  limestone  into  dunes, 
hillocks,  and  beds,  in  the  way  it  is  at  present  seen. 
It  must  be  owned  that  this  is  far  from  being  a  cer- 
tain explanation  of  the  origin  of  these  ranges :  they 
may  have  been  ridges  underneath  the  sea  just  like 
the  Coorong,  which  is  half  upraised  at  present ;  but 
the  circumstance  which  makes  them  very  probably 
the  result  of  coast  action,  when  upheaval  was  not 
going  on,  is,  that  they  seem  to  follow  the  coast 
line,  and  nowhere  rise  to  a  height  to  which  the 
surf  could  not  have  gradually  raised  them.  It  is 
admitted,  however,  that  these  reasons  are  not  com- 
pletely satisfactory,  more  especially  as  the  width 
of  the  ridges  and  the  valley  occurring  in  them 
would  point  to  upheaval  as  still  going  on  while 
they  were  forming.  The  circumstance  is  men- 
tioned, however,  just  as  an  observation  which  has 
occurred  to  the  writer,  which  future  geologists 
may  confirm  or  dispute. 

It  would  appear,  from  some  observations  that 
have  been  made,  that  during  periods  of  rest  the  sea 
encroaches  on  the  land  and  scoops  out  the  shore  in 
such  a  manner  that  they  form  terraces  when  up- 


216  BEACH   TERRACES. 

heaved.  Nothing  of  this  kind  is  observed  in  the 
ridges,  but  on  lower  and  more  level  parts  of  the 
coast  these  terraces  are  common.  Thus,  to  the  south 
of  Eivoli  Bay,  as  far  as  Cape  Northumberland, 
the  coast  is  very  low  and  flat,  only  occasionally 
dotted  with  rocks,  which  seldom  rise  to  more  than 
twenty  feet  above  the  sea.  There  is  little  or  no 
beach,  and  the  waves  seem  to  wash  the  foot  of  a 
terrace  raised  about  fourteen  feet.  Sometimes  the 
foot  of  this  terrace  is  a  deep  bed  of  black  flints  en- 
crusted on  the  outside,  in  every  respect  similar  to 
the  chalk  flints  of  England.  This  is  the  prevailing 
character  of  the  beach,  but  here  and  there  the 
shingles  are  absent,  and  a  deep  bed  of  loose  yellow 
sand  takes  its  place. 

Now,  above  the  beach  line,  about,  as  before  ob- 
served, fourteen  feet  high,  there  is  a  terrace  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  or  more  wide,  and  as  level  as  a 
bowling-green ;  it  runs  a  good  way  parallel  with  the 
coast,  but  is  interrupted  on  the  south  by  swamps, 
and  on  the  north  by  Lake  Bonney.  This  latter, 
as  remarked  above,  has  high  sand-hills  between 
it  and  the  ,sea,  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  it 
forms  part  of  the  terrace  now  described,  as  both 
must  have  been  covered  by  the  ocean  about  the 
same  time.  The  terrace  seems  to  have  a  sloping 
inclination  towards  the  inland  boundary,  which  is 
rather  an  abrupt  wall  of  limestone,  about  ten  feet 
high,  also  running  parallel  with  the  coast. 

The  summit  of  this  is  another  terrace,  but  it  is 
not  so  level  as  the  last,  and,  being  rather  thickly 


BEACH    TERRACES.  217 

timbered,  its  dimensions  are  not  so  readily  ascer- 
tained. It  is  bounded,  however,  at  about  four  miles 
from  the  sea,  by  a  limestone  ridge,  which  is  con- 
tinuous with  the  Stone  Hut  Range,  and  resembles 
it  in  all  respects.  These  terraces  are  either  the 
result  of  rests  during  the  periods  of  elevation,  or 
they  may  have  been  sudden  upheaval  by  shocks  of 
earthquakes  at  a  time  when  Mounts  Gambier  and 
Shanck  were  in  eruption. 

Though  this  is  not  the  nearest  coast  line  to  them, 
they  are  only  about  twenty-five  miles  distant.  It 
must  be  mentioned,  that  the  surface  of  these  ter- 
races is  generally  stony,  not,  however,  in  broken, 
detached  masses,  but  the  limestone  lies  in  flat 
slabs,  much  water- worn  on  the  surface,  just  as  if 
the  sea  had  consolidated  the  limestone  paste  and 
worn  it  smooth.  There  are  no  shells  on  the  surface 
— at  least,  I  could  discover  none — which  is  the  more 
singular,  as  in  the  sand-hills  on  the  coast,  at  a  much 
higher  elevation,  shells  of  existing  species  abound. 

Notwithstanding,  at  the  foot  of  each  cliff  there  is 
the  usual  deposit  of  chalk  flints  much  rounded  by 
attrition,  not  continuous,  but  scattered  here  and 
there  in  sufficient  quantity  to  make  their  identity 
with  those  on  the  coast  a  matter  of  certainty. 

It  will  be  worth  while  to  enquire  for  a  moment 
whence  these  flints  have  been  derived.  There  are 
none  in  the  rocks  now  on  the  coast,  and  none,  ap- 
parently, in  those  which  lie  beneath  the  sea ;  for  the 
structure  of  all  those  which  I  could  examine  was 
quite  similar  to  those  described  in  the  last  chapter, 


218  FLINTS. 

the  Upper  Crag,  best  seen  in  Guichen  Bay.  This, 
we  have  seen,  is  composed  of  small  particles  of  shells 
and  sand,  either  brought  down  by  an  ocean  current 
or  deposited  on  a  sandbank.  There  are  immense 
quantities  of  flints  in  the  lower  crag  about  Gambier, 
and  those  on  the  coast  are  in  all  respects  similar. 
One  would  imagine,  therefore,  that  the  crag  only 
extends  a  small  way  from  the  shore,  and  the  coral- 
line beds  crop  out  in  its  place,  from  whence  these 
flints  are  washed  out  and  thrown  upon  the  beach. 

It  was  much  to  be  regretted  that  no  levels  were 
ever  taken  from  the  coast  to  a  certain  distance 
inland.  Not  being  possessed  of  any  appliances  of 
the  kind,  it  was  impossible  to  tell  the  height  of  the 
terraces  on  the  ranges,  except  by  guess-work.  It  is 
therefore  only  a  surmise,  that  the  terraces  slope  up 
to  each  other.  There  was  also  another  surmise, 
which  I  only  give  as  a  guess,  but  which  seemed  to 
be  borne  out  by  one  or  two  circumstances,  and  that 
was,  that  the  flats  between  the  ridges  sloped  inland 
in  an  upward  direction,  and  that  the  flat  on  the 
east  side  was  slightly  higher  than  the  flat  on  the 
west  or  seaward  side.  If  this  were  the  case,  there 
would  be  one  more  argument  in  favour  of  the  po- 
sition, that  the  ridges  have  been  thrown  up  during 
periods  of  comparative  rest,  during  the  general  up- 
heaval of  the  land,  but  it  must  only  be  considered 
as  a  surmise  until  a  regular  series  of  levels  is  taken. 

In  concluding  this  chapter,  the  sand  dunes  of  the 
coast  must  be  mentioned  as  bearing  on  a  great  deal 
that  has  been  said  in  the  preceding  chapter.  It  has 


SAND   DUNES.  21!) 

been  already  frequently  stated,  that  the  whole  coast 
from  the  river  Murray  to  Cape  Otway  is  low  and 
sandy ;  indeed,  this  is  the  prevailing  appearance  on 
all  the  Australian  coast.  The  sand  is  of  three 
kinds :  either  in  high  ridges  well  grassed,  and  more 
or  less  interspersed  with  shells ;  in  high  detached 
hills,  either  bare  or  covered  with  salt  bush ;  or  in 
dunes  or  ridges  which  are  destitute  of  any  vege- 
tation, and  therefore  liable  to  drift  by  the  forpe  of 
the  wind  in  all  directions. 

Perhaps  all  the  sand  now  seen  on  the  coast  has 
been  originally  drifted  up,  and  has  only  ceased,  here 
and  there,  by  the  growth  of  plants  upon  it,  which 
has  given  it  firmness  and  consistency.  The  dunes, 
however,  are  very  common,  and  give  a  marked 
character  to  one  portion  of  the  coast,  from  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Glenelg  to  Cape  Bridgewater; 
they  form  immense  masses,  in  many  instances 
three  and  four  miles  from  the  coast,  and  rising  to 
an  altitude  of  300  feet,  or  even  more.  Nothing  can 
be  more  dreary  than  to  stand  on  one  of  these  emi- 
nences and  gaze  below;  it  is  an  arid  waste  of 
yellow  sand,  heaped  together  in  ridges  or  rounded 
hills,  without  a  patch  of  vegetation,  while  afar  off 
the  sea  rolls  on  with  a  heavy  surf,  making  the  air 
resound  with  its  roarings,  or  terrifying  one  with 
the  height  of  its  huge  crested  green  waves.  On 
windy  days  no  prospect  can  be  obtained,  for  then 
the  dunes  seem  as  troubled  as  the  ocean ;  every  gust 
of  wind  raises  huge  clouds  of  sand,  which  carl,  and 
break,  and  drift  along,  so  as  to  obscure  the  air. 


220  ENCROACHMENTS    OF    THE    SAND. 

^ 

Yalleys  are  filled  up  and  hillocks  swept  away, 
leaving  in  a  few  hours  scarcely  one  feature  of  the 
former  outline. 

The  rate  at  which  the  dunes  are  encroaching  on 
the  land  is  quite  surprising.  About  half  way  be- 
tween Cape  Bridgewater  and  the  Glenelg  there  is  a 
high  range,  six  or  seven  miles  from  the  sea ;  between 
this  and  the  dunes  a  road  runs — the  coast  road 
between  Mount  Gambier  and  Portland.  The  sand 
abuts  on  the  road  as  a  high  wall,  ranging  from  200 
to  300  feet  high,  and  the  wind  brings  it  down  the 
slope,  and  of  course  encroaches  more  and  more  upon 
the  space  between  the  coast  and  the  hills.  Every 
month  the  course  of  the  road  has  to  be  altered,  and 
the  old  tracks  serve  as  landmarks,  from  which  it 
can  be  seen  that  within  a  few  years  the  dunes  have 
encroached  many  yards ;  nothing  stops  their  course. 
Bushes  are  covered  in  a  very  short  time,  large  trees 
are  surrounded  and  buried  before  their  leaves  have 
time  to  wither,  and  here  and  there,  what  appears  a 
bundle  of  twigs  sprouting  out  from  the  sand,  is 
nothing  but  the  top  of  a  high  gum-tree  which  had 
been  heaped  over,  and  all  but  this  '  in  memoriam ' 
is  covered.  The  sand,  when  examined  closely,  is 
found  to  consist  of  very  small  fragments  of  shells, 
too  minute  to  allow  the  least  chance  of  identifica- 
tion, and  clear  grains  of  silicious  sand. 

In  no  place  that  I  was  able  to  examine  could  I 
find  the  smallest  indication  that  the  sand  became 
consolidated  into  a  rock,  or  of  any  concretions 
formed  by  the  percolation  of  rain  or  surface  water. 


THE    BURYING   OF    TREES.  221 

The  only  sign,  indeed,  that  rain  had  made  any  im- 
pression, was  at  the  edges  of  the  slopes,  where  it  cut 
trifling  little  courses,  and  caused  the  sand,  here  and 
there,  to  slip.  These  facts  are  the  more  important, 
as  they  afford  additional  reasons  against  the  sub- 
aerial  origin  of  our  Upper  Crag.  If  this  rock  had 
been  formed  out  of  water,  its  thickness  and  general 
character  would  indicate  something  very  similar  to 
the  sand  dunes,  and  then  the  concretions  which  are 
met  with  must  have  been  caused  by  the  infiltration 
of  rain  water.  Now,  for  rain  water  to  have  formed 
concretions  more  in  one  place  than  another,  it  must 
have  collected  on  the  surface,  but  this  it  would  not 
do  in  sand  like  these  dunes,  which  absorbs  water 
equally  on  all  parts  of  its  surface.  True,  if  the  top 
was  covered  with  trees  it  might  have  collected,  but 
there  are  no  trees  on  such  accumulations  of  sand. 

Some,  however,  may  think  that  the  burial  of  trees 
may  be  the  origin  of  the  concretions  in  the  crag, 
and  offer  another  reason  in  favour  of  its  subaerial 
origin ;  but  to  this  it  may  be  replied,  that  in  the 
absence  of  any  instance  here  of  the  hardening  of 
these  dunes  into  a  rock,  such  a  theory  is  not  con- 
sistent with  observed  facts,  though  such  may  be  the 
case  at  Bald  Head  and  Cornwall. 

The  strata  observed  by  Mr.  Darwin  may  have 
been  hardened  trees,  but  I  could  not  here  find  any 
traces  of  the  same  process. 

Again,  the  quaquaversal  dip  of  these  strata,  the 
oblique  lamination  of  the  crag,  has  never  been  seen 
by  me  where  a  section  of  the  sand  dunes  was  ex- 


222  TREES  NOT  FOSSILISED. 

posed;  on  the  contrary,  nothing  but  a  homogeneous 
mass  of  sand  was  perceptible.  I  am  far  from 
denying,  however,  that  if  the  dunes  were  hardened 
into  rock,  and  the  trees  and  branches  transformed 
into  calcareous  casts,  the  appearance  of  a  section 
would,  in  some  respects,  bear  a  strong  resemblance 
to  the  Upper  Crag:  but  the  marine  origin  of  the 
latter  is  strongly  evidenced  (as  shown  in  the  pre- 
ceding chapter),  either  by  its  always  existing  on  a 
coast  which  has  been  quite  recently  upraised  from 
the  sea,  or  by  its  being  in  many  instances  covered 
with  marine  shells  in  limestone,  or  with  trap  rock 
which  flowed  under  the  sea,  and  a  subaerial  course 
had  nothing  to  do  with  its  formation. 

It  is  rather  singular,  however,  that  wherever 
sand  dunes  are  found,  a  calcareous  sandstone  for- 
mation, like  the  crag,  is  generally  noticed  of  the 
coast  below  it.  This  is  the  case  on  the  east  coast 
of  England,  as  also  near  Lake  Superior,  in  America, 
where  immense  sand  dunes  in  the  coast  are  bounded 
by  a  hardened  calcareous  sandstone  rock.  Again, 
in  South  America,  Darwin,  in  mentioning  the  sand 
dunes  of  Bahia  Blanca,  mentions  as  near  them  the 
great  sandstone  plateau  of  the  Rio  Nigro:  the 
latter,  from  the  great  distance  of  the  two  localities, 
is  hardly  a  case  in  point. 

A  moment's  consideration  will  show  why,  per- 
haps, these  phenomena  are  always  associated  to- 
gether; not,  however,  because  the  rock  is  derived 
from  the  dunes,  but  because  the  latter  are  derived 
from  the  rock.  Thus,  sand  dunes  are  found  near 


CONCLUSION.  223 

old  red  sandstone,  near  secondary,  and  near  recent 
calcareous  sandstones,  but  in  every  case  it  is  the 
weathering  and  decomposition  of  the  rock  whence 
the  sand  is  derived,  and  this  is  the  reason  why  it 
is  found  in  such  large  quantities  as  to  drift  into 
hills,  valleys,  and  ranges. 

To  my  mind,  it  would  be  just  as  absurd  to  say 
that  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  has  been  formed  by  the 
hardening  of  the  modern  dunes,  as  it  is  to  say  the 
same  thing  of  our  Upper  Crag. 

In  conclusion,  some  apology  must  be  offered  for 
having  dwelt  so  long  on  a  point  of  apparently 
minor  importance ;  but  when  it  is  remembered  that 
this  formation  is  found  on  a  great  many  parts  of 
the  Australian  coast,  nearly,  in  fact,  encircling 
Australia  as  a  belt,  it  becomes  important  to  settle 
the  question  of  its  origin. 

Possessing  some  connection  with  the  coralline 
strata  underneath,  and  lying  on  the  coast  with  the 
most  evident  marks  of  upheaval  on  its  surface,  it 
belongs  especially  to  the  subject  I  have  attempted 
to  describe.  It  is  the  last  and  uppermost  of  the 
stratified  series ;  and,  having  dwelt  on  it  and  on  the 
subject  of  how  these  rocks  ever  came  to  be  dis- 
played to  us  from  beneath  the  sea,  it  remains  to 
consider  the  volcanic  evidences  of  the  district, 
which  will  be  the  subject  of  the  next  chapter. 


224 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
EXTINCT   VOLCANOES. 

PRELIMINARY    REMARKS. ABSENCE    OF  VOLCANOES    FROM   AUS- 
TRALIA.  PROBABILITY     OF    LESS    DISTURBANCE    IN    SOUTHERN 

HEMISPHERE. MOUNT     GAMBIER. BY     WHOM     DESCRIBED. 

THE   LAKES. THEIR    PECULIARITIES. THE    VALLEY   LAKE. 

THE    PUNCH-BOWL. THE     MIDDLE     LAKE. THE    BLUE    LAKE. 

MODE     OF     THE     VARIOUS     ERUPTIONS. VOLCANO      ONE     OF 

SUBSIDENCE,      NOT      UPHEAVAL. MINERALS      FOUND      IN      THE 

CRATERS.  —  PERIOD    OF   THE    ERUPTION. PROBABILITY    OF    ITS 

EXTINCTION. RECAPITULATION. 

WITH  the  last  chapter  we  have  concluded  the 
natural  history  of  the  sedimentary  rocks  of 
the  district,  and  we  therefore  pass  to  others  of  a 
different  origin.  It  will  be  necessary  again  to  notice 
circumstances  and  phenomena  connected  with  the 
aqueous  formations,  such  as  caves,  deposits  of 
bones,  &c.,  but  as  these  are  the  result  of  changes 
not  connected  with  the  origin  of  the  rocks,  and  to 
which  both  igneous  and  aqueous  deposits  may  have 
been  equally  subject,  the  description  of  them  will  be 
more  proper  at  the  end  of  this  volume. 

Let  us  therefore  now  turn  to  the  igneous  rocks 
of  the  district. 

It  has  sometimes  been  remarked,  that  Australia, 
for  its  size,  is  possessed  of  fewer  volcanic  remains 
than  any  other  country  of  equal  extent,  while 


EXTENT    OF    SOUTHERN   DEPOSITS.  225 

Europe,  a  continent  not  very  much  larger,  contains 
several,  which  are  even  now  in  a  state  of  activity, 
and  is  literally  studded  all  over  with  extinct 
craters.  Australia,  as  far  as  it  is  at  present  known, 
contains  none  of  the  former  and  comparatively  but 
few  of  the  latter :  probably  a  reason  will  be  found 
for  this  when  the  geology  of  this  continent  is  more 
studied.  At  present,  I  feel  convinced  that  it  is  one 
of  the  many  evidences  we  have  that  disturbance 
has  been  much  more  frequent  in  the  northern  than 
in  the  southern  hemisphere.  Look,  for  instance,  at 
the  immense  extent  of  the  formations  in  South 
America — meaning,  of  course,  the  fossiliferous  for- 
mations. There  is  the  great  Patagonian  tertiary 
formation,  extending  (according  to  Darwin  and 
M.  d'Orbigny)  from  St.  Cruz  to  near  the  Rio  Colo- 
rado, a  distance  of  600  miles,  and  reappearing  over 
a  wide  area  in  Entre  Rios  and  Banda  Oriental, 
making  a  total  distance  of  1,100  miles;  and  even 
this  formation  undoubtedly  extends  south  of  St. 
Cruz,  and,  according  to  M.  d'Orbigny,  120  miles 
north  of  Santa  Fe\  In  addition  to  this  wide  area, 
there  is  the  Pampean  formation,  celebrated  as  the 
sepulchre  of  the  bones  of  the  mastodon,  glypto- 
don,  megatherium,  &c.,  which  extends  over  many 
degrees  of  latitude.  In  our  own  continent  (Aus- 
tralia) we  have  formations  nearly  as  large ;  —  wit- 
ness the  coralline  strata  described  in  the  previous 
chapters  (the  Crags). 

Now,  such  immense  and  uninterrupted  forma- 
tions are  not  known  in  Europe  :  on  the  contrary, 

Q 


226  VABIETY  OF   EUROPEAN   FORMATIONS. 

the  amount  of  different  deposits  to  be  found  within 
a  small  area  is  surprising;  and  these  are  broken 
by  faults,  dykes,  and  inclinations,  showing  great 
disturbance,  even  where  the  strata  are  continuous. 
The  best  proof  tha,t  could  be  given  of  the  greater 
disturbance  in  the  northern  than  the  southern 
hemisphere,  is  that  in  Europe  —  nay,  perhaps, 
almost  in  Great  Britain  alone  —  all  the  deposit  of 
any  geological  epoch  may  be  studied ;  but,  supposing 
that  geology  had  just  been  cultivated  in  Australia, 
the  whole  secondary  period,  from  the  New  Red 
Sandstone  to  the  Chalk  inclusive,  would  have  been 
left  out  of  the  classification,  because  such  deposits 
are  quite  unknown  there,  and  repose  and  tran- 
quillity would  rather  be  supposed  to  be  the  rule 
of  Nature's  operations,  than  the  'immense  cata- 
strophes '  which  earlier  geologists  were  led  to  infer 
from  what  they  saw  in  Europe. 

I  feel  convinced,  therefore,  that  further  investi- 
gations will  show  that  disturbance  was  uncommon 
in  the  southern  hemisphere,  in  comparison  with 
the  northern ;  and  this  fact,  when  established,  may 
lead  to  revelations  of  subterranean  agents,  the 
importance  of  which  we  cannot  foresee.  In  the 
mean  time,  we  must  content  ourselves  with  close 
observation  and  a  record  of  facts,  feeling  certain 
that  theory  and  generalisation  will  easily  be  ac- 
complished when  the  hard  work  of  detail  has  been 
got  over. 

With  such  a  view,  we  have  now  to  record 
observations  on  the  igneous  rocks  of  this  district, 


NOTICES    OF   MOUNT    GAMBIER.  227 

commencing  in  this  chapter  with  the  remarkable 
extinct  crater  of  Mount  Gambier ;  and  probably 
the  particulars  are  interesting  to  science,  not  only 
on  account  of  its  being  one  of  the  most  extensive 
in  South  Australia,  but  because  a  faithful  descrip- 
tion of  it  may  serve  as  a  guide  to  other  volcanic 
phenomena  on  this  continent. 

The  ground  has  not  been  previously  quite  un- 
trodden. Captain  Sturt,  as  I  am  informed,  made 
a  series  of  observations  on  the  place,  but  did 
not,  as  I  am  aware,  proceed  any  further  with  re- 
gard to  publishing  his  remarks.  It  is  supposed, 
however,  that  he  made  some  communication  to 
Mr.  G.  P.  R.  James,  and,  accordingly,  a  rather 
romantic  and  incorrect  account  of  Mount  Gambier 
has  found  its  way  into  one  of  the  works  of  that 
novelist. 

In  1851,  Mr.  Blandowski  surveyed 'and  mapped 
the  three  lakes,  and  made  some  valuable  observa- 
tions on  their  mineralogical  and  geological  pecu- 
liarities. Part  of  the  latter  were  embodied  in  a 
series  of  letters  to  the  Adelaide  German  News- 
paper, but,  owing  to  the  gold  discovery,  and  the 
confusion  subsequent  thereon,  the  maps,  &c.,  were, 
I  believe,  unfortunately  lost.  Nothing  further  has 
been  done  in  the  exploration  of  the  crater.  I  have 
not  seen  Mr.  Blandowski's  papers  on  this  subject, 
and  therefore  cannot  say  how  far  his  views  and 
mine  coincide ;  but,  should  any  of  my  conclusions 
bear  a  stamp  of  less  probability  than  any  he  has 
advanced,  I  shall  be  most  happy  to  give  way  as  far 

Q2 


228  MOUNT    GAMBIEK. 

as  possible,  as  the  object  of  this  work  is  the  ad- 
vancement of  science,  and  not  my  opinions.  Every- 
one caring  for  truth  will  of  course  always  prefer  a 
true  theory  to  giving  currency  to  any  deductions  of 
their  own.  However,  I  am  sure  of  this,  that  the 
facts  are  strictly  stated,  as  observed ;  and  as  I  have 
always  given  the  reasons  which  have  led  me  to  draw 
any  conclusions,  readers  can  judge  for  themselves 
whether  they  are  hasty  or  not.  With  these  pre- 
fatory remarks,  let  me  proceed  at  once  to  my 
observations. 

The  extinct  volcano,  which  is  included  in  the 
general  title  of  Mount  Gambier,  is  a  chain  of  craters 
extending  nearly,  but  not  quite,  east  and  west ;  the 
wall  on  the  west  side  being  by  much  the  most 
elevated. 

There  are  three  lakes,  and  they  possess  such  dis- 
tinct features  that  they  require  to  be  described 
separately:  that  on  the  east  end,  called  the  Blue 
Lake,  is  a  large  and  deep  body  of  water  of  irregular 
oval  shape,  whose  longest  diameter  is  nearly  east 
and  west*  It  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  banks 
between  200  and  300  feet  high,  and  these  so  steep 
and  rugged  that  descent  to  the  water's  edge  is  quite 
impossible,  except  in  one  or  two  places.  The  sides 
are  thickly  wooded  with  varieties  of  the  Melaleuca 
(the  tea-tree  of  the  colonists),  excepting  where  the 
rough  rocks  stand  out  in  perpendicular  escarpments, 
and  thus  the  dark-green  brushwood  is  broken  by 
huge  and  craggy  rocks  descending  precipitously  for 
forty  or  fifty  feet.  These  crags  sometimes  hang  over 


THE    BLUE    LAKE.  229 

the  water,  whose  already  dark-blue  tint  is  rendered 
still  more  gloomy  by  the  reflection  of  their  black 
and  stony  fronts.  The  whole  appearance  of  the  lake 
is  wild  and  sombre  in  the  extreme.  The  deep-blue, 
or  rather  inky  appearance  of  the  waters,  the  black- 
ened precipices  which  bear  so  plainly  the  tokens  of 
fiery  ravages,  the  thick  and  tangled  nature  of  the 
brushwood,  give  the  place  an  air  of  savage  lone- 
liness ;  and  then  the  place  is  so  quiet,  so  still,  that, 
but  for  the  cawing  of  the  rooks  overhead,  or  the 
splashing  of  a  solitary  water-fowl,  one  might  almost 
imagine  Nature  to  be  at  rest,  tired  with  sending 
forth  those  volcanic  fires  which  poured  forth  ages 


ago. 


Looking  at  the  walls  from  any  side,  four  distinct 
kinds  of  rock  are  visible.  There  is,  first,  the  larger 
ash,  decomposed  into  soft  black  surface  soil,  covered 
with  grass  and  trees,  and  varying  in  thickness  from 
forty  to  seventy  feet.  It  extends,  in  some  places,  to 
the  water's  edge  uninterruptedly;  underneath  this 
there  is  a  precipitous  escarpment  of  black  lava, 
generally  forty  feet  thick,  but  at  the  western  end 
of  the  lake  much  thicker  and  more  precipitous ;  this 
extends  nearly  all  round  the  lake,  and  is  very  seldom 
inclined  or  broken, .  or  in  any  other  way  than  a 
precipice,  rough  and  jagged,  and  having  no  dip 
towards  the  water.  Under  this  there  is,  in  places,  a 
layer  of  greyish-brown  ash,  about  two  feet  thick  and 
very  finely  laminated :  this  is  only  occasionally  seen. 
Beneath  this  there  are  about  twenty  feet  of  coralline 
rock,  full  of  fossils,  and  belonging  to  the  Mount 


230  THE    MIDDLE   LAKE. 

Gambler  Lower  Crag  formation,  with  the  strata  quite 
horizontal,  and  bearing  some  marks  of  having  been 
exposed  to  a  high  temperature,  but  rarely  crys- 
tallised. This  latter  bed  of  rock  forms  a  well-defined 
white  line,  nearly  continuous  round  the  lake,  at  a 
uniform  height  of,  perhaps,  rather  more  than  twenty 
feet.  The  lava  is  not  vesicular,  or  rarely  so,  and 
seems  to  have  flowed  from  some  of  the  lakes  to  the 
westward,  about  which  more  will  be  said  presently. 
The  next  lake  is  merely  a  good-sized  pond,  of 
moderate  depth.  The  level  of  the  water  seems 
about  the  same  as  the  last  lake,  and  the  banks  as 
high,  if  not  higher.  They  are  not  precipitous,  but 
slope  all  round  to  the  water  at  an  equal  inclination, 
with  little  or  no  outcropping  of  rock.  They  are 
well  grassed  and  studded  with  shea-oak  (  Casuarina 
cequcefolia}  and  honeysuckle  (Banksia  integrifolia} ; 
the  water  at  the  bottom  has  only  made  its  appear- 
ance, as  I  am  told,  within  the  last  few  years.  It 
must  not  be  forgotten,  in  reading  the  description  of 
these  lakes,  that  they  are  joined  together,  so  that  the 
west  walls  of  the  Blue  Lake  make  the  eastern  ones 
of  the  Middle  Lake,  as  it  is  called.  There  is  a  break, 
or  rather  a  deep  indentation,  in  the  height  of  the 
walls  between  the  Blue  and  Centre  Lakes,  so  that  a 
person  standing  on  the  centre  of  the  partition 
between  them  sees  the  walls  on  his  right  and  left 
slope  upwards  from  him :  this  is  seen  in  the  fore- 
ground of  the  engraving  as  a  kind  of  pass  leading 
from  one  lake  to  the  other.  The  same  thing  occurs 
between  the  Centre  Lake  and  most  westerly  or  Valley 


THE    VALLEY   LAKE.  231 

Lake ;  the  walls,  then,  of  the  Centre  Lake  are  highest 
on  the  north  and  south,  while  on  the  east  and  west 
line,  where  they  join  the  two  others,  they  form  deep 
depressions  or  passes  between,  though  still  at  a 
considerable  height  above  the  crater.  The  height 
of  the  lowest  part  above  the  water  is  pr-obably, 
from  a  rough  calculation,  about  170  feet,  and  the 
highest  perhaps  double  that. 

The  third  lake  differs  much  from  the  other  two, 
and  is  possessed  of  so  many  and  such  varied  features, 
that  it  becomes  difficult,  in  the  details  of  these,  to 
give  a  good  general  idea  of  its  appearance;  it  is 
larger  than  the  Blue  Lake  crater,  and  of  almost  cir- 
cular form,  but  the  bottom  is  only  partially  covered 
with  water,  very  deep  at  the  east  end,  but  shal- 
low on  the  west.  Those  parts  which  are  left  dry 
are  always  connected  with  the  sides  (which  jire 
lower  there),  though  in  one  instance  by  a  mere  strip 
of  land,  and  the  ground  is  very  undulatory,  rising, 
at  times,  into  hillocks,  which  are  some  little  height 
above  the  water.  The  water  is  at  each  end,  and 
the  ground  in  the  middle,  but  by  far  the  largest 
lake  is  on  the  eastern  side.  In  the  dry  part,  there 
are  three  ponds,  which,  being  circular,  appear  at  a 
distance  like  wells  sunk  side  by  side.  The  view 
from  above  them  would  incline  one  to  call  the 
Valley  Lake  crater  a  basin  with  strips  of  land, 
which  are  covered  with  little  ponds,  and  have  a 
very  uneven  surface. 

The  crater  walls  surrounding  this  lake  are  very 
remarkable.  At  the  eastern  end  they  are  lowest, 


THE    CRATER   WALLS. 

rising  gradually  till  about  a  third  of  the  way 
round  on  the  northern  side,  and  then,  rising  sud- 
denly into  a  peak  and  descending  again  for  a  short 
distance,  again  mount,  by  a  very  abrupt  elevation, 
to  nearly  double  the  previous  height,  from  which 
point  there  is  a  gentle  slope  upwards  to  the  highest 
part  of  the  mount,  where  a  trigonometrical  station 
is  erected.  From  this  there  is  a  still  more  abrupt 
descent  to  the  usual  height  of  the  sides,  which  is 
continued  round  to  the  starting-point  at  the  east 
side.  That  part  of  the  wall  which  is  so  consider- 
ably higher  than  the  rest  is  what  is  properly 
termed  Mount  Gambier.  (This  is  the  peak  seen  in 
the  engraving. )  It  is  the  higher  wall  of  the  crater, 
and  gives  a  better  key  to  the  kind  of  eruption 
that  has  taken  place  than  any  other  part  of  the 
mount. 

Standing  on  the  highest  point,  one  perceives  a 
basin  on  the  south  side  which  is  called  the  Punch- 
bowl. It  seems  like  a  hollow  scooped  out  by  an 
eruption  in  the  side,  and  at  a  distance  appears 
precisely  similar  to  ths  Cumbrecito  in  the  side  of 
the  Caldera,  in  Palma  (Cape  Verd  Islands).  On 
nearing  it,  it  is  found  to  be  very  deep,  so  that  its 
real  form  is  like  a  funnel,  with  one  side  (that 
which  is  inside  the  lake  walls)  much  lower  than 
the  other.  Here  a  sort  of  pitch  stone  porphyry 
is  very  common,  especially  on  the  lower  or  inner 
side. 

At  first  sight,  this  appeared  to  be  a  crater  on  a 
small  scale,  and  such  no  doubt  it  is,  but  there  is 


THE    PUNCH-BOWL.  233 

no  sign  of  any  tufa  around,  as  if  having  fallen 
from  a  centre,  and  the  soil  is  so  deep  on  the  inside 
and  so  covered  with  long  grass  and  fern,  that 
assertions  as  to  its  origin  are  founded  alone  on 
its  shape.  The  occurrence  of  such  little  craters, 
either  at  the  side  or  in  the  walls  of  craters,  gives 
rise  to  many  speculations.  It  does  seem  strange, 
that  while  a  central  large  crater  is  carrying  off 
the  subterranean  fires,  any  other  vent  should  be 
formed  so  close  by.  Possibly  it  may  be  one  of  the 
many  cracks  formed  at  the  same  time  that  the 
crater  in  the  centre  was  opened,  and  the  steam  and 
gases  issuing  therefrom  would  prevent  any  deposi- 
tion of  ashes  upon  it  while  they  were  deposited  all 
around. 

Or  it  may  have  been  a  small  crater  established 
subsequently.  These  are  very  common,  even  when 
there  is  a  large  central  point  of  ejection.  Thus, 
Mount  Etna  is  surrounded  with  small  cones ; 
Vesuvius,  Ischia,  and  Hecla  are  also  innumerable 
instances  of  the  kind.  It  must  be  said,  however, 
that,  had  it  been  a  subsequent  eruption,  more 
disturbance  in  the  original  walls  would  be  seen. 
It  may  be  remarked,  in  passing,  that  earthquakes 
alone  have  been  known  to  produce  such  funnel- 
shaped  hollows.  The  small  circular  ponds  in  the 
Plain  of  Rosarno,  caused  by  the  Calabrian  earth- 
quake of  1783,  are  cases  in  point. 

A  little  past  this  Punch-bowl,  as  it  is  called, 
nearing  the  eastern  side,  the  walls,  instead  of 
sloping  down  to  the  lake  as  heretofore,  become 


234  THE    GRATER   WALLS. 

precipitous,  and  the  volcanic  ashes,  disappearing 
from  the  sides,  appear  only  on  the  top.  The 
precipitous  portions  of  this  end  (forming  at  least 
half  the  wall)  are  formed  of  the  fossiliferous  coral- 
line strata  peculiar  to  this  district.  The  stratifi- 
cation is  nearly  horizontal,  with  a  decided  though 
slight  dip  inwards  towards  the  lake;  which  dip, 
being  quaquaversal,  or  inclining  all  round  to  a 
common  centre,  shows  the  rock  to  have  subsided 
into  a  hollow  previous  to  the  erupti  n,  of  which 
hollow,  as  will  be  afterwards  seen,  the  present 
crater  forms  only  a  part.  The  water  appeared 
to  me  to  be  deepest  here.  The  strata  are  not  in 
the  least  altered  by  fire,  as  far  as  one  could  judge 
from  a  short  distance,  the  only  change  being  a 
weather-worn  appearance,  which  is  observable  in 
caves  elsewhere. 

There  is  no  channel  or  dyke  in  any  one  of  the 
three  lakes  such  as  would  have  been  made  by 
a  flow  of  lava ;  indeed,  there  is  very  little  appear- 
ance of  lava  in  the  whole  group,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  stratum,  which  here,  as  at  the 
Blue  Lake,  lies  between  the  ash  and  the  coralline 
strata.  But  it  is  only  a  moderate  seam  at  the  end 
of  the  Valley  Lake  just  described.  The  lava  where 
it  is  found  varies  in  its  character,  but  may  be 
described  as  dolerite,  sometimes  very  porous  and 
scoriform,  in  which  case  it  is  of  a  bright  brick-red 
colour ;  generally,  however,  it  is  a  blackish  brown, 
occasionally  enclosing  crystals  of  glassy  felspar  and 
ausrite.  Fragments  of  scoriaB  are  found  on  the  sides 

o  o 


THE    CRATER    WALLS.  235 

and  bottoms  of  all  the  lakes,  with  pieces  of  lapilli 
and  porphyry  (black  base  and  glassy  felspar).  On 
the  sides  near  the  higher  wall  or  mount,  scoriae 
occur  more  frequently,  evidently  having  streamed 
down  in  a  backward  flow,  before  cooling.  The 
fracture  of  these  pieces  is  smooth  and  glassy,  ex- 
actly like  pitch  or  new  coal  and  coke. 

To  return  now  to  a  more  minute  description  of 
those  portions  which  throw  a  light  on  the  past 
history  of  the  volcano,  we  come  to  what  is  termed 
properly  Mount  Gambier,  and  is,  in  fact,  the  highest 
wall  of  the  Valley  Lake  crater.  This  is  formed  of 
successive  layers  of  an  ash  conglomerate,  composed 
of  scoria?,  fragments  of  obsidian,  porous  lava,  and 
pieces  of  the  fossiliferous  rock,  all  cemented  together 
into  a  very  hard  stone.  The  wall  is  a  mere  ridge  on 
the  top,  but  slopes  down  on  each  side  to  a  consider- 
able thickness.  The  rock  not  being  decomposed, 
the  layers  are  well  defined.  A  good  section  is  seen 
of  the  highest  wall  or  cone  from  the  inside  of  the 
Valley  Lake.  This  is  rendered  still  more  conspicuous 
from  the  occurrence  of  a  ridge,  or  sort  of  buttress, 
which  runs  from  the  water  edge  to  the  very  highest 
point  of  the  summit.  It  is  here  observed  that  the 
layers  of  ash  or  strata  thin  out  rapidly,  and  are 
inclined  at  a  greater  angle  in  proportion  as  they 
near  the  summit.  Thus  the  dip  is  constantly 
variable.  This  gives  a  satisfactory  answer  to  the 
application  of  Von  Buch's  theory  in  the  case  of  this 
volcano.  Other  and  more  decisive  reasons  why 
this  cannot  be  a  crater  of  elevation  will  be  subse- 


236  THE    HIGHER   WALLS. 

quently  given.  What  is  somewhat  remarkable  is, 
that  the  strike  of  these  strata  inclined  at  each  side 
of  the  buttress  already  alluded  to.  This  ridge,  as 
it  may  be  called,  comes  out  pretty  considerably  into 
the  lake  at  its  foot,  and  it  is  matched  on  the  other 
side  by  a  similar  promontory,  making  the  ground 
plan  of  the  lake  like  the  figure  8.  This  fact  is  of 
importance,  because  as  these  two  promontories 
make  nearly  a  complete  circle  round  the  water 
where  the  volcano  has  left  most  traces,  it  would 
seem  as  if  the  eruption  was  confined  to  that  end 
only,  at  least  latterly  in  its  history.  This  will 
appear  more  reasonable  from  what  will  be  here- 
after advanced.  The  activity  of  this  part  of  the 
crater  must  have  concluded  with  as  great  violence 
as  the  commencement,  because  at  the  very  highest 
part  of  the  ash  cone  there  are  two  or  three  immense 
fragments  of  the  fossiliferous  rock  embedded  firmly 
in  the  conglomerate. 

It  has  been  already  observed,  in  describing  the 
walls  of  the  Valley  Lake  crater,  that  the  higher  wall 
or  proper  mount  rises  abruptly  above  the  ordinary 
level  of  the  walls.  Before  this  takes  place,  there 
is  on  the  north  side  an  isolated  hill  or  hummock 
forming  part  of  the  wall.  Between  this  and  the 
higher  wall  the  sides  are  not  precipitous,  but  slope 
down  into  a  kind  of  terrace  or  half-basin,  which 
near  the  lake  becomes  a  small  precipice,  covered 
with  red  scoria?.  At  the  foot  of  this  small  escarp- 
ment the  water  is  not  reached,  but  there  is  a  gently- 
undulating  ashy  slope  down  to  it.  This  half 


THE    OLDEST    CRATER    OBLITERATED.  237 

basin,  with  its  isolated  ash  cone,  forms  somewhat 
of  an  inlet  from  the  general  form  of  the  lake.  Par- 
ticular attention  must  be  directed  to  it.  Evidently, 
it  has  been  a  crater;  probably,  oldest  and  first  of  all. 

From  this  crater  it  would  appear  the  lava  has 
been  derived  which  lies  about  the  limestone  in  the 
Valley  and  Blue  Lakes ;  for  from  this  point  the  walls 
on  the  north  side  are  higher  and  more  undulatory, 
and,  wherever  sections  can  be  seen,  are  formed  prin- 
cipally of  thick  black  lava,  flowing  away  in  the 
direction  of  the  Blue  Lake.  Considering,  however, 
the  moderate  thickness  of  the  stream,  and  its  being 
so  slightly  vesicular,  it  must  have  flowed  in  a 
highly  liquefied  state,  spreading  out  into  a  sheet, 
owing  to  the  level  character  of  the  ground,  and 
covering  spots  now  occupied  by  parts  of  the  Blue 
and  Valley  Lakes. 

Thus  far  I  have  been  merely  describing  those 
features  which  are  calculated  to  elucidate  the 
geology  of  the  volcano ;  I  must  now  consider, 
from  these  evidences,  what  kind  of  eruption  has 
taken  place  to  cause  the  appearances  related.  Let 
us  take  the  Valley  Lake  first,  as  best  fitted,  from  its 
peculiarities,  to  give  us  an  insight  into  the  whole 
phenomena.  In  the  first  place,  we  have  already 
seen  that  the  upper  part,  or  west  end,  contained  a 
recent  crater  near  the  ridge,  and  the  relics  of  an 
ancient  one  on  the  north  side. 

The  east  end  of  the  Valley  Lake,  it  has  already 
been  remarked,  has  precipitous  walls  of  limestone, 
lava,  and  ash,  with  deep  water  at  the  foot.  The 


238  NATURE    OF    THE    ERUPTION. 

bottom  of  this  water  is  ashes  and  scoriae :  I  do  not 
think,  however,  that  the  whole  Valley  Lake  has  been  a 
large  crater  at  any  time.  The  eruption  of  the  crater 
was,  in  my  opinion,  entirely  confined  to  the  west 
side,  and  was  neither,  comparatively  speaking,  very 
violent,  nor  of  long  duration.  The  greatest  height 
of  ash  is  probably  not  more  than  600  feet,  and  this 
appears  to  have  been  formed  almost  exclusively 
from  the  deep  and  irregularly-formed  lake  which 
lies  at  the  bottom  of  the  higher  wall,  and  this  wall, 
moreover,  is  nearly  the  only  remains  which  the 
eruption  has  left  behind  to  mark  its  progress.  Of 
course  the  two  little  well-shaped  vents  for  the 
middle  of  the  lake,  already  alluded  to,  contributed 
their  quota ;  but,  as  they  are  both  surrounded  by  a 
circular  wall,  some  ten  or  twelve  feet  high,  one 
must  regard  their  contributions  as  not  on  a  very 
extensive  scale.  The  east  end,  where  deep  water 
washes  the  precipitous  banks,  may  have  thrown  out 
some  of  the  ashes  that  are  found  on  the  banks 
above  it;  but  the  origin  of  this  portion  of  the 
lake  will  be  considered  by  and  by. 

That  the  eruption  of  this  crater  was  not  very 
violent,  may  be  gathered  from  the  following  facts. 
The  tufa,  &c.,  are  not  scattered  very  far,  and  do 
not  seem  to  have  been  thrown  to  any  considerable 
height ;  for  the  higher  wall  is  so  near  the  point  of 
ejection,  and  so  very  narrow,  compared  with  the 
sides  of  the  Blue  Lake.  Again,  the  strata  of  conglo- 
merate thin  out  so  rapidly,  that  they  could  not  have 


ITS    SMALL    EXTENT.  239 

been  formed  by  a  volcanic  process  on  a  very  large 
scale ;  besides,  to  sum  up  all  to  a  self-evident  pro- 
position, if  there  was  much  thrown  up  there  would 
be  more  to  be  seen  than  there  is  at  present.  Many 
Avho  have  seen  the  mount  will  be  surprised  at  its 
size  being  considered  small,  but  when  we  remem- 
ber that  the  volcano  of  Jorullo,  in  Mexico,  was  ele- 
vated considerably  over  1,000  feet  in  a  single  night 
—  when  we  remember  the  tremendous  height  of 
some  volcanic  mountains,  Mount  Loa,  for  instance, 
by  no  means  the  largest,  which  is  4,000  feet  high — 
we  cannot  think  it  would  take  very  long  to  form  a 
cone  of  the  moderate  pretensions  of  Mount  Gam- 
bier.  Of  course,  when  we  speak  of  small  erup- 
tions and  moderate,  these  remarks  must  be  quali- 
fied by  recollecting  that  any  volcanic  action  is  the 
result  of  a  vast  convulsion  of  nature,  always  at- 
tended with  serious  effects;  and,  had  there  been 
any  life  or  property  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Mount 
Gambier  at  the  time  of  its  eruption,  the  results 
would  doubtless  have  been  quite  extensive  enough 
for  the  sufferers.  But  it  may  be  asked,  how  is  it, 
if  the  disturbance  was  confined  to  one  side  of  the 
crater,  that  the  ejectamenta  do  not  form  a  com- 
plete circle  round  the  point  of  ejection?  The 
answer  to  this  difficulty,  which  required  some  inves- 
tigation to  solve,  explains  one  of  the  peculiar  fea- 
tures of  the  volcano,  which  is,  I  think,  unparalleled 
in  any  other  volcano  in  the  world,  and  accounts  for 
the  fossiliferous  precipice  on  the  eastern  end  of  the 


240  THE    VALLEY   CRATEK. 

basin.  The  hypothesis,  which,  after  considerable 
enquiry,  I  have  been  induced  to  adopt,  is  this. 

Previously  to  the  second  eruption  of  the  ancient 
crater,  but  after  the  first,  a  large  circular  mass 
of  limestone  fell  in,  owing  to  a  subsidence  under- 
neath; this  subsidence  was,  of  course,  connected 
with  igneous  agents,  and  as  the  same  phenomenon 
has  occurred  at  the  Blue  Lake,  we  shall  consider 
it  more  at  length  when  describing  that  crater. 
Such  a  chasm  thus  formed  would  be  an  ample  re- 
ceptacle for  all  the  ejectamenta  which  fell  eastward. 
This  theory  received  every  support  from  what  is 
observed  elsewhere;  indeed,  it  would  never  have 
suggested  itself  had  I  not  observed  the  phenomenon 
in  other  parts  of  the  district.  Thus,  at  a  spot 
about  a  mile  from  the  Blue  Lake,  there  is  a  place 
called  the  Cave  Station  (previously  alluded  to),  at 
which  two  immense  basins  of  chasms  may  be  seen, 
whose  precipitous  sides  and  many  other  evidences 
easily  recognised,  show  them  to  result  from  im- 
mense masses  of  rock  having  fallen  in. 

The  friable  nature  of  the  coralline  rock  renders 
it  much  more  liable  to  this  kind  of  accident ;  and 
the  country,  to  some  distance  round,  is  filled  with 
caves  and  funnel-shaped  holes,  which-  nearly  all 
owe  their  origin  to  the  same  cause.  That  there 
was  a  subsidence  at  the  Valley  Lake  after  the  up- 
heaval of  the  strata  is  shown  by  the  quaquaversal 
dip  of  the  beds  towards  the  centres  of  the  basin, 
and  that  a  chasm  was  eventually  the  result  of  such 
a  subsidence,  is  recognised  from  an  identity  of 


THE    VALLEY    CKATER.  241 

appearance  with  the  caves,  as  they  are  called,  just 
alluded  to. 

Probably  there  was  an  eruption  of  ash  from  the 
chasm  when  it  was  formed,  and  this  explains  why 
there  is  no  line  of  division  or.  separating  wall  be- 
tween the  east  and  west  ends  of  the  Valley  Lake, 
for  they  evidently  form  separate  craters. 

The  great  disproportion  of  what  I  have  termed 
the  higher  wall  to  the  rest  of  the  ash  deposit  must 
of  course  be  attributed  to  the  prevailing  direction 
of  the  wind,  which  is  always  very  violent  during 
volcanic  disturbance;  for  the  air,  heated  by  the 
boiling  liquid  below,  rises  rapidly,  and  cool  air, 
rushing  in  to  supply  the  vacuum  so  caused,  gives 
rise  to  a  current  of  air  in  one  direction.  This  is 
the  reason  why,  in  the  volcanic  island  of  St.  Paul 
(38°  44'  S.,  77°  37'  E.),  the  west  side  is  800  feet 
high,  while  the  east  is  not  much  above  the  water's 
edge.  But  as  the  wind  only  accounts  for  a  dispro- 
portion, and  not  for  the  total  absence,  of  one  side, 
the  theory  of  the  chasm  —  which  is  supposing 
what  the  appearance  really  bears  out — is  the  only 
satisfactory  explanation. 

There  is  one  thing  more  to  be  added  just  now :  two 
promontories  were  spoken  of  which  jut  out  from 
the  walls  and  partially  enclose  the  water.  One  of 
these  promontories  is  the  ridge  already  described, 
which  runs  to  the  top  of  the  highest  part  of  the 
mount ;  the  other  is  very  remarkable.  Seen  from 
the  east,  it  appears  like  a  succession  of  nearly  hori- 
zontal layers  of  ash,  rising  into  a  straight  thin  wall, 

E 


242  THE    CENTRAL    LAKE. 

nearly  forty  feet  high,  but  seen  from  the  peak  it  is 
found  to  be  composed  of  strata  of  tufa  dipping  in 
towards  the  central  point  of  ejection  at  an  angle  of 
nearly  60°.  The  fact  of  its  having  an  inclination 
only  one  way,  and  that  towards  the  west  or  highest 
part  of  the  crater,  is  pretty  conclusive  proof  that 
at  the  time  of  its  formation  there  was  only  one  end 
of  the  lake  from  which  ejectamenta  were  coming, 
and  that  was  the  western  end.  Some  subsidence 
has  taken  place  since  the  deposition  of  the  ashes 
found  on  the  north  side  of  the  basin,  where  the 
amygdaloidal  lava  is  in  greatest  quantities:  the 
ground  sounds  very  hollow  on  percussion  for  some 
distance,  showing  the  existence  of  some  cave  under- 
neath, the  hard  nature  of  the  pitch  stone  just  there 
preventing  its  falling  in. 

We  must  now  turn  our  attention  to  the  Central 
Lake.  Whatever  has  been  said  of  the  Punch-bowl, 
on  the  south-west  side  of  the  Valley  Lake,  applies 
equally  to  this.  It  is  larger,  but  a  mere  sloping 
chasm  of  half-decomposed  ash,  with  a  pond  of  water 
at  the  bottom.  It  has  been  stated  before,  that  no 
rock  is  visible  on  its  sides.  It  is  well  grassed. 

The  eruption  from  this  crater  has  not  been  very 
violent;  probably,  it  was  subsequent  to  the  most 
ancient  crater  in  the  Valley  Lake.  There  are  no 
data  to  form  an  opinion  as  to  what  relation,  in  point 
of  time,  it  bears  to  the  other  craters.  A  section  of 
some  little  depth  on  the  top  of  the  sides  near  either 
of  the  other  lakes  would  show,  by  the  stratification 
of  the  ash,  which  was  prior  to  the  other ;  and,  un- 


THE    CENTRAL   LAKE.  243 

fortunately,  no  such  section  is  obtainable  at  present. 
There  is  nothing,  however,  against  the  theory  that 
they  may  have  been  synchronous.  It  is  rather 
strange,  however,  that  this  crater  lies  in  the  straight 
line  between  the  other  lakes,  each  of  which  has  a 
seam  of  basalt  underneath  the  ash,  and  there  are 
no  signs  of  this  seam  in  the  crater  under  consider- 
ation, neither  does  the  subjacent  limestone  show. 
This  may  arise  from  the  more  moderate  depth  of 
this  crater.  I  cannot  help  thinking,  however,  that 
it  goes  deep  enough  to  show  both.  The  absence  of 
the  seams  may  be  explained  otherwise.  If  the 
seam  of  basalt  had  flowed  prior  to  the  eruption  of 
this  part  of  the  volcano,  its  subsequent  breaking 
forth  might  have  blown  away  the  seam  of  trap  and 
covered  the  fragments  with  ash;  and  there  are 
fragments  in  the  sides  to  bear  out  this  hypothesis. 

Another  theory  which  has  suggested  itself  is 
this — the  crater  may  have  been  in  activity  while 
the  lava  was  flowing,  and  so  have  heaped  up  suffi- 
cient ash  to  have  kept  the  stream  away  from  its 
mouth.  In  effect,  the  ash  is  higher  on  the  side  past 
which  the  lava  flowed.  These  are  the  only  facts  worth 
mentioning  in  connection  with  this  crater,  which 
seems  to  have  been  quite  undisturbed,  and  remains 
now  like  a  blackened  cauldron,  a  sombre  monument 
of  the  ravages  of  its  former  igneous  tenant. 

The  consideration  of  the  Blue  Lake  has  been 
reserved  till  the  last,  as  being  the  most  extensive, 
and  as  where  the  eruption  both  began  and  ended. 
Having  already  described  its  aspect  and  appearance, 

E   2 


244  THE    BLUE    LAKE. 

we  have  only  now  to  do  with  its  geological  features. 
From  the  regularity  in  the  form  of  the  walls,  and 
from  their  uniform  height  all  round,  one  easily 
concludes,  that  whatever  eruption  took  place  from 
this  crater,  it  was  sustained  from  a  line  in  the 
centre,  without  being  subject  to  any  variation. 
Indeed,  the  whole  seems  to  have  been  formed  by 
successive  layers  of  ash  regularly  distributed  all 
round  on  the  top  of  the  stratum  of  trap  (much 
thicker  here)  which  lies  on  the  limestone,  and 
through  which  the  volcano  has  broken  a  passage. 

Close  to  the  lake  the  ash  is  probably  150  feet 
thick;  at  a  quarter  of  a  mile  this  is  reduced  to  be- 
tween forty  and  fifty  feet,  and  at  the  distance  of 
a  mile  this  thins  out  to  a  mere  seam,  varying  from 
three  to  six  feet  in  thickness,  and  so  on  till  it 
becomes  lost  in  the  upper  soil.  This  is  what  is  per- 
ceptible about  a  foot  or  so  from  the  surface,  but, 
as  the  dark  soil  of  the  country  is  nothing  but  the 
result  of  decomposed  ash,  the  deposit  must  have 
been  much  thicker  than  it  now  appears.  Nearly  all 
round  the  lake  there  is  a  regular  line  of  demar- 
cation, made  by  the  thick  seam  of  basalt  which 
intervenes  between  the  rock  and  the  ash. 

It  has  been  already  stated,  that  a  layer  of  highly 
laminated  grey  ash  lies  between  the  basalt  and  the 
limestone ;  it  is  about  two  feet  thick  in  some  places, 
and  the  laminations  dip  in  all  directions.  This 
clearly  shows  that  an  eruption  had  taken  place 
before  the  flowing  of  the  lava,  since  it  is  underneath 
it.  This  could  not  have  been  from  the  Blue  Lake, 


THE    BLUE    LAKE.  245 

because,  in  that  case,  the  lava  would  show  some 
signs  of  having  flowed  over  into  the  basin.  But  it 
does  not.  On  the  contrary,  it  appears  in  clean 
escapements,  as  if  broken  away  round  the  edge  of 
the  lake  after  cooling.  The  general  dip  of  the  ash 
laminations  points  to  the  Valley  Lake,  probably 
the  ancient  crater,  as  the  point  whence  they  pro- 
ceeded. Had  the  crater,  at  the  point  whence  they 
proceeded,  been  nearer,  we  might  expect  the  ash 
deposit  to  be  thicker  than  it  is  found. 

The  limestone  underneath  was  not  altered  or 
crystalline  wherever  examined.  This  is  not  sur- 
prising. If  volcanic  sand  acts  as  a  non-conductor 
of  heat  to  such  an  extent  that  clefts  in  Mount 
Etna,  filled  with  snow  and  ice,  when  covered  with 
it  are  not  melted  by  subsequent  flows  of  lava,  we 
can  easily  understand  why  the  limestone  should 
remain  unaltered.  A  layer  of  ash,  two  feet  thick, 
would  amply  resist  the  heat  of  a  much  thicker  flow 
of  lava  than  that  found  at  Mount  Gambier.  I  may 
just  mention,  in  passing,  Naysmith's  experiment, 
quoted  by  Sir  Charles  Lyell  in  his  '  Principles  of 
Geology :' — 'A  cauldron  of  iron  one  inch  thick,  lined 
with  sand  and  clay  five-eighths  of  an  inch  thick,  was 
able  to  contain  eight  tons  of  melted  iron  at  a  white 
heat.  Twenty  minutes  after  the  pouring  in  of  the 
iron,  the  hand  could  be  placed  on  the  outside  with- 
out inconvenience.' 

The  limestone  is  not  altered ;  the  edges  of  the 
strata  exposed  to  the  lake  are  discoloured,  just  as 
if  gunpowder  had  been  exploded,  here  and  there,  in 


246  THE    BLUE    LAKE. 

spots ;  the  strata  are  hardened,  and  detached  frag- 
ments ring  on  percussion;  the  edges  are  also  jagged 
and  precipitous,  like  the  lava  above  them.  There 
are  no  incrustations  of  lava ;  no  pumice  or  scoriae 
adhering  to  the  sides,  wherever  I  could  examine 
them ;  and,  as  far  as  appearances  go,  this  holds  good 
all  round.  I  must  observe,  however,  that,  as  some 
portions  of  the  wall  rise  straight  from  the  water's 
edge,  they  can  only  be  examined  by  means  of  a 
boat. 

Descending  to  the  margin  of  the  lake,  (a  proceed- 
ing which  requires  some  little  nerve  and  prudence 
to  accomplish),  the  appearance  of  the  water  is  quite 
changed.  Instead  of  having  that  dark  and  murky 
hue  it  seems  to  possess  as  seen  from  above,  it  as- 
sumes a  beautiful  crystal  clearness,  unequalled  by 
the  purest  spring  that  ever  flowed  from  a  rock. 
Rapidly  deepening  from  the  side,  the  water  becomes 
a  delicate  azure  at  a  short  distance  from  the  brink, 
still,  in  its  faint  distinctness,  showing  the  outlines 
of  great  boulders  of  rock  on  the  bottom,  whose 
great  proportions  are  gradually  lost  in  the  increas- 
ing depth.  And  there  the  surface  is  so  calm  and 
quiet,  only  disturbed  by  the  most  gentle  rippling, 
which  wreaths  the  pretty  water-plants  into  most 
graceful  forms,  and  makes  them,  from  time  to  time, 
reveal  the  surface  of  the  snow-white  rock  upon 
which  they  grow. 

Sometimes,  however,  the  water  deepens  almost 
perpendicularly  from  the  sides.  It  is  somewhat 
singular,  that  though  the  sides  are  formed  either 


THE    BLUE    LAKE.  247 

of  the  coralline  rock  in  situ,  or  of  large  fragments 
of  this  limestone  lying  on  the  rapidly  sloping  sides, 
there  are  no  fragments  of  the  basaltic  trap  which, 
lies  above  it.  If,  as  hereafter  will  be  proved,  this 
crater  began  its  career  by  the  falling  in  of  the 
chasm  now  visible,  it  is  strange  that  fragments  of 
trap  are  not  as  common  on  the  sides  beneath  the 
water-level  as  fragments  of  limestone,  since  both 
equally  formed  portions  of  the  superincumbent 
mass.  Perhaps  no  fragments  of  either  remained 
on  the  sides  at  the  time  of  the  formation  of  the 
chasm,  and  those  that  are  now  seen  have  been  de- 
tached subsequently  from  portions  which  lay  under 
water. 

The  lake  is  known  to  be  240  feet  deep  in  the 
middle,  and  from  soundings  it  would  appear  that 
the  bottom  is  flat  and  equal,  like  a  floor.  This^was 
ascertained  from  a  boat  which  took  the  Governor 
(Sir  R.  G.  M'Donnell)  upon  its  surface — the  only 
time  its  waters  were  traversed  by  man.  I  was  un- 
able to  find  any  tufa,  scoriaa,  or  porous  lava,  a  few 
fragments  of  pitchstone  being  the  only  volcanic  evi- 
dences which  appear.  This  may  not  be  the  case  all 
round;  but,  until  more  facilities  are  afforded  for 
investigation,  my  conclusions  must  rest  only  upon 
what  I  am  able  to  observe.  Here,  then,  the  evidence 
shows  there  has  been  an  eruption  which  has  been 
considerable,  both  from  the  size  of  the  lake  and  the 
immense  quantities  of  ash  thrown  to  such  a  dis- 
tance. That  it  has  been  accompanied  with  violent 
explosions  is  seen  from  the  immense  masses  of  basalt 


248  ITS    ERUPTION. 

which  are  sometimes  buried  in  the  ash,  and  yet, 
with  all  these  marks  of  disturbance,  there  are  no 
signs  of  any  outpouring  of  lava,  little  or  no  pumice 
or  scoria3,  and  not  even  an  aperture  in  the  side 
through  which  any  lava  could  have  flowed,  nor  any 
fragmentary  slags  adhering  to  the  face  of  the  pre- 
cipitous rock:  Such  appearances,  seemingly  con- 
tradictory and  inexplicable  at  first,  are  conse- 
quences of  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  eruption 
which  took  place.  I  am  going  now  to  give  a  his- 
tory of  the  igneous  activity  of  the  volcano,  which 
will  clear  up  whatever  obscurity  there  appears  to 
rest  on  the  mode  of  its  disturbance,  and,  as  I  pro- 
ceed along,  I  shall  give  the  complete  chain  of  evi- 
dence by  which  the  explanation  is  supported ;  but 
as  the  theory  would  appear  startling  unless  some 
parallel  case  were  cited,  let  me,  by  way  of  preface, 
give  an  account  of  a  volcano  at  present  in  activity, 
which  Mount  Gambier  most  resembles. 

In  the  Sandwich  Islands  there  is  a  volcano  called 
Mount  Goa,  which,  though  very  much  larger  than 
the  one  under  consideration,  resembles  it  in  many 
ways.  In  the  side  there  is  a  lateral  crater,  at  pre- 
sent in  activity,  called  Kilauea,  which  is  3,970  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  or  about  the  same  height 
as  Vesuvius.  Sir  C.  Lyell,  in  his  admirable  'Manual 
of  Geology,'  describes  it  thus : — '  Kilauea  is  an  im- 
mense chasm,  1,000  feet  deep,  and  in  its  outer 
circuit  no  less  than  from  two  to  three  miles  in 
diameter.  Lava  is  usually  seen  to  boil  up  from 
the  bottom  in  a  lake,  the  level  of  which  alters  con- 


ITS    ERUPTION.  24U 

tinually,  for  the  liquid  rises  or  falls  several  hundred 
feet,  according  to  the  active  or  quiescent  state  of 
the  volcano ;  but,  instead  of  overflowing  the  rim  of 
the  crater,  as  commonly  happens  in  other  vents, 
the  column  of  melted  rock  forces  a  passage  into 
subterranean  galleries  or  rents  leading  towards 
the  sea.' 

A  Mr.  Coan  has  described  an  eruption  which 
took  place  in  1840,  when  the  lava  had  risen  high 
in  the  crater  and  began  to  escape  from  it.  The 
direction  of  the  current  was  first  traced  from  the 
emission  of  a  bright  vivid  light  from  an  ancient 
crater  400  feet  deep,  about  six  miles  to  the  east- 
ward of  Kilauea.  The  next  indication  was  about 
four  miles  farther  on,  where  the  fiery  flood  broke 
out  and  spread  itself  over  about  fifty  acres  of  land, 
finding  its  way  underground  for  several  miles 
farther,  to  reappear  at  the  bottom  of  another  an- 
cient crater,  which  it  partly  filled  up.  The  course 
of  the  fluid  then  became  invisible  for  several  miles, 
until  it  broke  out,  for  the  last  time,  twenty-seven 
miles  from  Kilauea,  running  in  the  open  air  for 
twelve  miles,  and  then  escaping  into  the  sea  over  a 
cliff  fifty  feet  high  in  a  cataract  of  liquid  fire  which 
lasted  for  three  weeks.  The  termination  was  about 
forty  miles  from  Kilauea. 

Now,  there  can  be  very  little  doubt  that  some- 
thing similar  to  this  has  happened  at  Mount  Gam- 
bier,  consequent  on  the  eruption,  perhaps,  of  both 
craters.  The  mount  is  scarcely  fifteen  miles  from 
the  sea,  and  being  not  much  above  the  level  of  the 


250  THE    BLUE    LAKE. 

latter,  would  not  give  occasion  to  the  lava  to  come 
to  the  surface  during  its  passage. 

Mount  Shanck,  another  extinct  volcano,  lies  in 
a  straight  line  between  the  sea  and  Mount  Gambier ; 
but,  as  it  will  form  the  subject  of  the  next  chapter, 
I  will  not  enter  further  into  its  description  than  to 
state  that  there  is  no  mark  of  any  lava  stream  from 
Mount  Gambier  in  its  vicinity, — nor  need  we  expect 
it,  since  the  igneous  forces  which  caused  both  must 
have  had  a  subterranean  connection. 

The  theory  that  the  lava  flowed  underground 
into  the  sea,  was  formed  after  investigating  the 
features  of  the  lakes,  for  it  seemed  quite  natural  to 
conclude,  that  after  such  an  eruption  there  must 
have  been  a  flow  of  lava  in  some  direction ;  and  I 
thought  it  likely,  provided  the  sea  level  had  not 
much  altered  since  the  eruption,  there  should  be 
some  signs  of  volcanic  rocks  on  the  sea  coast  to  the 
south  of  the  craters.  This  is,  in  fact,  the  case.  A 
seam  of  trap  is  seen  on  some  of  the  rocks,  as  though 
it  had  come  to  the  surface  and  flowed  over  them. 
The  trap  is  not  vesicular,  and  may  have  flowed 
under  the  sea,  because  this  part  of  the  coast  has 
only  recently  been  upheaved.  It  is  not  certain, 
however,  that  it  does  come  from  these  craters, 
though  the  probability  is  greatly  in  favour  of  that 
theory. 

We  will  now  consider  the  peculiar  features  of  the 
Blue  Lake  as  indicating  the  kind  of  eruption  that 
has  taken  place.  From  the  fact  of  the  seam  of 
lava  bearing  most  positive  evidence  of  having  been 


THE    BLUE    LAKE.  251 

fractured  all  round,  to  give  rise  to  the  present 
crater,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  chasm  owes 
its  origin  to  subsidence  and  the  falling  in,  en  masse, 
of  the  superincumbent  strata.  This  seems  a  bold 
theory,  but  no  other  will  coincide  with  the  appear- 
ances the  lake  presents.  Had  the  chasm  been 
already  there  when  the  lava  flowed,  it  must  have 
shown  some  signs  of  flowing  over  the  banks,  but 
none  such  exist.  The  rock  appears  to  have  been 
split  into  a  jagged  precipice  by  the  falling  in  of  a 
part.  From  the  crater  thus  formed  ashes  and  scorise 
were  ejected.  Its  depth  by  the  present  soundings, 
from  the  top  of  the  lava  to  the  fused  mass,  must 
have  been  nearly  500  feet ;  of  course  nearly  all  the 
subsided  rock  would  be  rapidly  fused,  except  some 
few  fragments  thrown  into  the  air  by  explosions 
and  deposited  on  the  sides.  Such  fragments,  some, 
perhaps,  weighing  as  much  as  a  ton,  are  seen  em- 
bedded in  the  ash.  It  must  not  be  imagined  that 
there  is  any  novelty  in  supposing  extensive  sub- 
sidence during  volcanic  eruptions.  Indeed,  the  Va] 
del  Bove,  on  the  side  of  Etna,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  caused  by  a  similar  agency.  Mr.  Charles 
Darwin,  in  his  interesting  volume  on  volcanic 
islands,  has  given  many  instances  of  subsidence 
coincident  with  volcanic  disturbance,  or  imme- 
diately following  them. 

It  will  be  remembered,  also,  that  subsidences  are 
supposed  to  have  operated  at  the  east  end  of  the 
Valley  Lake.  It  must  be  admitted  that  there  is  a 
novelty  in  assuming  a  crater  with  such  an  origin, 


252  THE    BLUE    LAKE. 

but  no  doubt  can  be  entertained  that  after  the 
subsidence  an  ejection  of  ashes  took  place.  This 
mode  of  eruption  of  a  volcano  is  hardly  in  accord- 
ance with  received  theories  as  to  the  manner  of 
their  breaking  forth,  nor  should  I  venture  to  pro- 
pose it,  were  it  not  strictly  in  accordance  with 
observed  facts.  Nothing,  however,  can  more  per- 
fectly contradict  the  crater  elevation  theory  as 
applied  in  this  case.  So  far  from  there  being  any 
marks  of  elevation,  the  limestone  strata  preserve 
a  most  perfect  horizontality  at  the  water's  edge. 
Abruptly  as  the  ash  dips  outwards,  the  limestone 
strata  most  convincingly  show  that  it  (the  ash) 
has  not  been  upheaved  to  its  present  position. 

Instead,  then,  of  an  elevation  theory,  we  must 
adopt  a  subsidence  theory  in  this  case.  Whether 
this  is  applicable  in  any  other  instance  I  am  un- 
aware, but  the  fact,  if  new,  may  be  useful  in  ex- 
plaining anomalies  in  other  extinct  craters.  After 
the  subsidence,  the  eruption  must  have  been  sus- 
tained for  some  time,  for  the  ash  above  the  lava  is 
upwards  of  100  feet  thick,  and  dips  away  all  round 
from  the  Blue  Lake,  showing  that  as  its  centre.  I 
do  not  think  that  the  subsidence  was  caused  by  the 
eruption  of  lava  from  the  first  and  most  ancient 
crater,  —  the  lava  would  have  then  been  heated 
enough  to  make  it  plastic,  —  but  it  appears  to  have 
been  perfectly  cool  when  broken,  and  the  fractured 
edges  are  sharp  and  jagged.  The  subsidence  more 
probably  took  place  when  a  subsequent  eruption 
had  caused  an  underground  flow  of  lava.  This  of 


FORMATION    OF    THE    CHASM.  253 

course  would  have  been  larger  in  quantity,  and 
would  have  given  rise  to  a  larger  vacuum. 

The  eruption,  then,  was  this : — The  boiling  lava, 
from  whatever  cause  arising,  may  have  pressed  hea- 
vily against  the  overlying  strata,  so  as  to  crack  and 
fracture  it  in  many  places.  The  pressure  which  would 
force  a  mass  of  rock  half  a  mile  wide,  and  in  thick- 
ness equal  to  the  depth  of  the  lake,  at  least  240  feet, 
must  have  been  enormous,  and  this,  when  exercised 
on  the  soft  friable  rock  of  the  sides,  or,  it  may  be, 
on  what  is  mere  sand  (underneath  the  coral  strata), 
when  combined  with  heat,  would  easily  force  a 
passage  towards  the  sea;  and  once  an  outlet  was 
obtained,  the  absence  of  lava  would  cause  a  hollow, 
and  finally  a  chasm,  through  which  the  eruption  of 
ash  would  have  full  play.  To  a  failure  of  support, 
consequent  on  a  subterranean  outpouring  of  lava,  I 
attribute  the  chasms  of  both  the  Blue  and  Valley 
Lakes,  with  this  difference,  that  while  the  eruption 
continued  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  the  Blue 
Lake  after  the  falling  in  of  the  rock,  in  the  Valley 
Lake  it  was  confined  to  the  west  end  of  the  chasm, 
formerly  the  high  wall  or  peak  of  Mount  Gambier. 
The  eruption,  then,  of  the  Blue  Lake  was  simply 
limited  to  the  ejection  of  large  quantities  of  ashes 
and  occasional  fragments  of  rock,  continued  for 
some  time  after  part  of  the  boiling  fluid  had  made 
a  way  under  the  soft  limestone  rock,  and  flowed 
down  to  the  sea. 

We  have  seen  that  there  are  four  extinct  craters 
at  Mount  Gambier,  besides  the  remnant  of  a  fifth. 


254  THE    ASHES. 

Some  of  these  may  have  been  in  activity  together. 
There  were,  I  think,  three  periods  during  which 
the  craters  were  more  active  than  at  other  times ; 
though  the  rests,  apparently,  were  only  temporary, 
and  far  from  leaving  the  mount  in  a  perfect  state 
of  repose. 

The  following  are  the  reasons  upon  which  these 
suppositions  are  based : — At  a  short  distance  from 
the  lake  the  ashes  are  found  to  lie  in  three  distinct 
layers,  all  composed  of  coarse  tufa  underneath,  and 
fine  ash-dust  on  the  uppermost  side.  Each  layer 
was  doubtless  caused  by  a  distinct  violent  eruption, 
which,  on  the  commencement,  would  scatter  large 
fragments  about,  and,  as  the  energy  subsided,  a  fine 
ash-dust  would  gradually  cover  them  over.  The 
eruption  again  breaking  out,  would  renew  the  ]arge 
fragmentary  layer,  thus  marking  its  own  periods  of 
disturbance  by  distinct  strata. 

That  the  lulls  were  only  very  temporary  may  be 
seen  from  the  fact,  that  the  fine  dust  on  the  upper 
side  of  the  lower  or  of  the  middle  strata  had  not 
time  to  become  the  least  altered  before  the  second 
and  third  deposits  were  superimposed.  Generally, 
above  the  upper  layer  there  is  a  mass  of  rich 
black  loam,  covering  it  at  a  variable  thickness. 
This  is  decomposed  ash,  originally  of  a  fine  and, 
therefore,  easily  decomposable  texture.  This  latter 
deposit  is  easily  accounted  for,  because,  after  an 
outbreak,  there  ensues  in  all  volcanoes  a  long  period 
of  quasi-disturbance,  during  which  time  the  erup- 
tion is,  as  it  were,  settling  down,  and  the  crater 
cooling.  In  this  interval  smoke  and  fine  dust  are 


AGE    OF    THE    CRATER.  255 

continually  emitted,  and  cover  the  ground  to  some 
extent  in  those  places  nearer  the  crater. 

There  remains  now  only  one  point  to  be  noticed, 
and  that  is  as  to  what  geological  date  we  are  to 
assign  the  period  of  disturbance.  One  thing  only  is 
certain,  that  it  happened  since  the  Crag  period, 
though  at  what  precise  epoch  there  is  no  evidence 
to  show.  The  fossiliferous  rocks,  so  often  alluded 
to,  are  of  the  Mount  Gambier  formation,  described 
in  former  chapters  of  this  work.  The  ashes,  as 
before  stated,  are  resting  above  them,  and  evidently 
there  has  been  little  or  no  upheaval  since  the  volcano 
broke  forth.  They  were  formerly,  beyond  a  doubt, 
part  of  a  coral  reef,  and  immense  masses  of  a  com- 
mon extinct  pecten  may  still  be  seen  in  the  walls, 
with  lumps  of  coralline  of  the  species  alluded  to, 


Pecten  coarctatus.    Mount  Gambier. 

classified  under  the  name  of  Cellepora  gambierenis. 
Of  the  peculiarities  of  the  strata,  however,  I  shall 
say  only  one  word  more  at  present,  so  as  not  to 
repeat  what  has  already  been  described  in  another 
part  of  this  work. 

Wherever  the  beds  are  found  caves  also  appear, 
many  of  which  (by  piles  of  bones,  &c.,)  are 
seen  to  be  certainly  not  later  than  the  Post-Pleio- 
cene.  The  rocks,  therefore,  were  in  that  period  in 


256  DATE    OF   LAST   EKUPTION, 

the  position  they  are  at  present,  which  they  were 
also  in  when  the  volcano  broke  out ;  so  that  if  here- 
after caves  should  be  found  with  ash,  &c.,  inside, 
or  bearing  marks  of  having  been  disturbed  by  the 
eruption,  some  better  approximation  may  be  made 
to  the  geological  date:  but  at  present  the  rocks 
cease  to  guide  us  farther. 

But  was  the  volcano  in  activity  lately  ?  An 
answer  in  the  negative  may  safely  be  given,  be- 
cause, first,  the  ash  is  quite  decomposed  in  many 
places,  and  the  porous  lava  partly  so,  which  must 
have  taken  considerable  time  to  effect ;  and  next, 
the  large  crater  is  filled  with  water  to  the  depth  of 
240  feet,  which  water  could  not  even  have  begun  to 
collect  until  the  rock  was  perfectly  cool,  and  then 
must  have  taken  ages  to  become  the  large  body  of 
fluid  at  present  resting  there.  To  give  an  idea 
how  long  it  takes  volcanoes  to  cool,  or  for  the  ash 
to  decompose,  I  will  mention  a  few  instances.  The 
lava  of  Jorullo,  which  poured  forth  in  1759,  was 
found  to  retain  a  very  high  temperature  half  a 
century  after.  The  ashes  on  the  Peak  of  TenerifFe 
are  nearly  undecomposed,  and  yet  it  is  not  known 
to  have  received  any  fresh  additions  during  the 
last  600  years.  Some  of  the  ashes  on  extinct  vol- 
canoes in  Auvergne,  which  I  visited  in  1853,  are 
much  less  decomposed  than  those  of  Mount  Gam- 
bier,  and  yet  the  former  have  been  deposited  more 
than  1,800  years  ago.  Now,  when  it  is  remembered 
that  the  ashes  of  the  latter  are  not  only  decom- 
posed, but  that  large  trees  have  taken  root  and 
grown  up  in  it,  we  must  be  of  opinion  that  our 


ITS   ANTIQUITY,  257 

volcano  has  been  extinct  for  some  considerable 
time.  And  let  it  be  remarked,  that  the  cases  I 
have  mentioned  are  not  exceptional,  for  I  could 
specify  many  more,  which  would  all  bear  testimony 
to  the  antiquity  of  the  mount. 

When,  however,  we  say  that  it  has  not  been  in 
activity  lately,  there  is  no  intention  of  asserting 
that  it  is  impossible  for  it  to  break  out  again : 
tranquil  as  it  may  appear,  the  igneous  agent  may 
still  be  active  below.  It  should  not  be  forgotten 
that  Vesuvius  was  quite  as  tranquil  about  eighteen 
centuries  ago.  Indeed,  when  reading  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  former  state  of  Vesuvius,  its  great  basin, 
in  which  trees  and  grass  grew,  and  an  army  was 
once  encamped,  one  is  forcibly  reminded  of  the 
present  state  of  Mount  Gambier. 

If  Vesuvius  has  become  what  it  now  is,  Mount 
Gambier  may  yet  do  so  likewise.  At  any  rate,  it 
is  not  completely  at  rest,  for  shocks  of  earthquakes 
have  been  occasionally  felt,  while  the  land  around  is 
daily  upheaved.  This  latter  fact  is  significant.  No 
active  volcano  has  been  found  otherwise  than  in 
the  vicinity  of  land  in  the  course  of  upheaval, 
though  the  converse  of  the  fact  hardly  holds  good. 

I  forgot  to  mention  that  there  is  always  found 
between  the  ash  and  limestone,  when  at  any  dis- 
tance from  the  craters,  a  thick  bed  of  fine  sand, 
showing  that,  after  the  upheaval  of  the  reef  from 
the  sea,  it  became  a  sandy  desert  previous  to  the 
igneous  outburst.  Whether  this  sand  supported 
any  vegetation,  or  whether  there  was  any  vegeta- 

s 


258  CONCLUSION. 

tion  in  the  surrounding  country  prior  to  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  volcano,  it  is  difficult  to  determine : 
none  has  been  found  between  the  ash  and  the  lime- 
stone. I  may  mention,  however,  that  I  have  seen 
fragments  of  scoriae  enclosing  pieces  of  charcoal. 

The  minerals  found  in  the  craters  are  few,  chiefly 
confined  to  olivine,  with  darker  crystals  of  the 
same  mineral  embedded.  The  aborigines  use  the 
dolerite  as  a  weapon,  fixing  it  in  pieces  of  wood, 
and  forming  a  kind  of  axe ;  and,  singularly  enough, 
the  same  mineral  serves  a  similar  purpose  to  the 
Indians  near  the  Cordilleras  of  South  America. 

I  think  I  have  now  gone  through  the  principal 
features  of  this  curious  volcano,  in  which  I  have 
often  been  obliged  to  sacrifice,  for  succinctness, 
many  details  I  could  have  wished  to  have  mentioned. 
We  are  told  there  is  a  philosophy  in  stones,  and  it 
certainly  is  strange  what  a  history  of  the  past  a 
few  rocks  can  give  us.  There  has  been  a  coral 
reef,  a  desert,  and  a  burning  mountain  where 
beautiful  lakes  now  rest,  and  each  period  has 
erected  monuments  to  its  memory.  There  is  a 
history,  too,  written  in  plain  characters,  for  the 
mind  of  man,  and  my  occupation  has  been  to 
decipher  it. 

Going  back,  in  imagination,  to  the  time  when 
the  coral  was  alive  and  covered  by  the  sea,  who 
could  have  thought  it  would  come  to  be  what  it  is 
now?  But  imagination  is  not  needed.  We  have 
only  to  glance  at  the  remains  before  us  to  realise 
the  truth  of  the  tale  they  tell.  These  rocks  were 


CONCLUSION.  259 

once  covered  by  the  green  waters.  There,  while 
the  rising  tide  dashed  its  sparkling  waves  through 
the  groves  of  coral,  where  the  busy  polypi  were 
plying  their  variegated  arms  in  search  of  matter  to 
add  to  these  structures,  a  thousand  fishes  frisked 
for  a  while  to  die  and  leave  their  forms  imprinted 
on  the  stone,  while  the  cunning  saurian  slept  among 
the  arborescent  forms,  or  wilily  watched  his  prey. 
Then  the  earth  slowly  raised  them  from  the  waters, 
and  life  faded  away.  Fishes  and  reptiles  are  gone, 
and  stones  tell  how  they  lived  and  died.  The  reef 
became  a  sandy  desert,  without  a  drop  of  water 
or  a  sign  of  vegetation  to  relieve  the  eye — a  vast 
and  dreary  solitude.  But  Nature  soon  changes  the 
scene.  Subterranean  thunders  are  heard  ;  earth- 
quakes rumble  and  rock  the  ground.  Then  masses 
of  stone  fall  in  and  give  vent  to  smoke  and  steam, 
which  rush  from  the  centre  of  the  earth.  By  and 
by,  fire  begins  to  appear,  and  Nature,  no  longer 
able  to  restrain  the  ravages  of  heat,  sends  it  forth 
into  a  bubbling  hissing  cauldron  of  molten  stone. 
Standing  upon  the  brink  (if  human  being  could 
stand  alive  on  such  a  place),  while  the  air  is  dark- 
ened with  smoke  and  ashes,  and  huge  fragments  of 
stone  are  being  hurled  into  the  air  to  fall  into  the 
hissing  seething  mass  below;  while  the  light  from 
the  fire  and  the  noise  of  explosion  blinds  the 
lightning  or  outbids  the  thunder  overhead;  Avhile 
the  bellowing  and  splashing  of  a  lake  of  fire  make 
a  scene  at  once  horrible  and  magnificent,  one  could 
almost  imagine  oneself  on  the  bank  of  Tartarus. 

s  2 


260  CONCLUSION. 

But  comparison  would  be  vain;  not  even  Yulcan 
could  stand  and  describe  such  a  scene.  He  might 
have  thought, 

'In  Chaos  antiquum  confundimur.  .  . 
.  .  .  Neque  enim  tolerare  vaporem 
Ulterius  potuit,  nee  dicere  plura.'  Ov.  Phaeton. 

But  now  how  changed  is  the  scene !  the  smoke  has 
cleared  away,  and  the  fires  are  extinct.  Nature  is 
at  her  repose.  The  melted  walls  have  cooled,  and 
an  azure  lake  covers  them.  The  ashes  on  the  bank 
are  covered  with  verdure,  and  reeds  grow  where 
fire  glowed.  The  underground  thunders  are  indeed 
heard  no  more,  but  the  wind  sends  a  soft  moaning 
through  the  shrubs,  while  the  gentle  splashing  of 
the  calm  and  glassy  lake  is  now  the  only  echo  that 
is  heard  from  shore  to  shore. 


261 


CHAPTER   IX. 
VOLCANOES CONTINUED . 

MOUNT  SHANCK. — -  DISSIMILARITY  OF  VOLCANOES. IMPORTANCE 

OF     DESCRIBING     THEM. DESCRIPTION     OF     THE    COUNTRY. 

WELL-SHAPED     HOLES. VALLEY.  AUSTRALIAN     FLORA.  

SMALL    LAKE. — .VOLCANIC    BOMBS. — -THE    GREAT    CONE. RE- 
MAINS  OF    FORMER    CRATER. HOW    MORE    RECENT    CONE    WAS 

FORMED. ITS     APPEARANCE     AND     SIMILARITY     TO     VESUVIUS 

AND     ETNA. INDENTATION     IN     THE      SIDE. EVIDENCE      OF 

FORMER    PEAK.  —  LAVA    STREAM. CURIOUS    MODE    IN    WHICH 

IT    IS    HEAPED. DERIVED    FROM    OLDER    CRATER. CAUSE    OF 

HEAPING   OF   THE    SCORIJ3. PARALLEL    INSTANCES. CONNEC- 
TION   OF   MOUNTS   GAMBIER   AND    SHANCK. CONCLUSION. 

A  FTER  having  given  my  readers  a  lengthy 
-£L  detail  of  the  extinct  volcanoes  of  Mount 
Gambier,  we  now  turn  to  the  volcanic  monument 
next  in  importance  in  this  part  of  South  Australia, 
namely,  Mount  Shanck*  It  is  scarcely  so  interest- 
ing as  Mount  Gambier,  being  neither  so  extensive 
nor  so  varied ;  but  it  is  important,  as  showing  how 
far  the  views  on  the  subject  of  the  former  crater 
are  realised  in  this.  One  would  think  there  was 
a  great  sameness  in  the  character  of  volcanoes, 
because,  having  all  resulted  from  the  same  cause, 
namely,  the  outburst  of  molten  fires  from  the  in- 
terior of  the  earth,  the  same  appearances  might  be 
expected.  On  the  contrary,  however,  there  is  the 


262  MOUNT   SHANCK. 

greatest  variety.  No  two  ever  resemble  each  other, 
except,  perhaps,  in  the  conical  outline  and  the  basin 
in  the  centre,  and  it  is  in  the  description  of  their 
various  peculiarities  that  so  many  facts  connected 
with  their  history  have  been  brought  to  light. 

Lest  any  should  think  that  in  the  following 
pages  too  much  space  is  given  to  detail,  it  should 
be  remembered,  that  even  if  the  facts  are  new  they 
are  important,  and  may  help  to  settle  points  in  a 
matter  where  very  little  certainty  prevails.  Apart, 
however,  from  confirming  a  theory,  the  history  of 
any  volcanic  phenomena  cannot  fail  to  be  interest- 
ing ;  if  it  only  should  give  us  an  idea  of  the  extent 
to  which  our  continent  has  been  disturbed  by  fiery 
agency,  before  becoming  a  resort  for  the  European, 
it  would  be  well  worth  consideration.  But  it  does 
more.  It  is  a  part  of  the  history  of  the  earth, — one 
of  the  many  testimonies  which  the  rocks  bear  to 
the  wondrous  structure  of  the  ground  beneath  our 
feet — to  the  greatness  of  that  Omnipotence  which 
can  let  fires  flow  forth  so  as  to  melt  rocks  and  rend 
mountains,  and  then  seal  them  up  so  that  flowers 
shall  grow  peacefully  where  they  rose. 

Another  reason  may  be  added  for  multiplying 
the  records  of  volcanic  action.  We  are  far,  even 
at  the  present  day,  from  understanding  the  cause 
of  volcanoes.  Theories  have  been  propounded,  but 
uncertainty  prevails.  From  Nova  Zembla  to  New 
Zealand  they  are  constantly  met  with,  and  though 
at  this  moment  they  are  burning  amid  the  snows 
of  Iceland,  the  waters  of  the  Mediterranean,  and 


MOUNT   SHANCK.  263 

the  heats  of  the  equator,  their  origin  and  the  man- 
ner in  which  they  burn  out  are  equally  mysterious. 
In  this  state  of  things,  the  accumulation  of  records 
is  of  great  importance.  Every  little  (in  which 
category  these  observations  are  included)  may  be 
of  use. 

It  will  be  remembered,  that  in  explaining  the 
geological  features  of  Mount  Gambier  it  has  been 
stated: — 1.  That  the  lava  arising  from  the  erup- 
tion has,  in  all  probability,  flowed  underground. 
2.  That  the  eruptions  do  not  appear  to  have  given 
rise  to  any  upheaval  or  elevation  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  of  the  walls ;  on  the  contrary,  sub- 
sidence seems  to  have  been  very  frequent.  3.  That 
to  sudden  subsidences  of  small  areas  are  to  be  attri- 
buted some  of  the  Mount  Gambier  craters.  It  is 
necessary  that  these  particulars  should  be  borne 
in  mind,  because  they  are  elucidated  by  what  is 
now  to  be  described,  and  because,  as  Mount  Shanck 
is  between  Mount  Gambier  and  the  sea,  some  con- 
firmation must  be  looked  for  of  the  fact  (if  fact  it 
be)  that  the  lava  flowed  underground. 

Mount  Shanck,  as  seen  from  Mount  Gambier, 
appears  like  a  truncated  cone,  rising  abruptly  from 
an  apparently  level  plain.  There  are  no  moun- 
tains rending  to  break  the  suddenness  with  which 
it  appears  on  the  field  of  view,  and  its  darkened 
outlines  readily  suggest  to  an  observer  an  extraor- 
dinary origin.  The  country  around  is  well  and 
almost  thickly  wooded,  the  general  aspect  being 
fertile  and  pleasing,  even  seen  from  a  distance.  It 


264  DESCRIPTION   OF   THE   MOUNT. 

is  about  eight  miles,  or  even  less,  from  Mount  Gam- 
bier,  the  sea  being  about  ten  miles  farther  on. 

Enough  has  been  said  in  the  last  chapter  about 
the  latter  mount ;  but,  in  taking  leave  of  it,  I  cannot 
refrain  from  mentioning  the  very  beautiful  view 
that  is  to  be  obtained  from  its  summit.  Below,  the 
Blue  Lake,  with  its  smooth  dark  waters,  and,  a 
little  to  the  north,  the  white  houses  of  the  township 
peeping  out  amid  the  trembling  branches  of  the 
trees;  all  around  green  patches,  which  wave  more 
and  more  in  the  breeze  as  the  harvest  approaches ; 
whilst  many  a  curling  column  of  smoke,  or  the 
echoing  of  the  whip  in  the  forest  around,  tells  that 
the  new  colonist  is  making  a  home  where  industry 
has  never  toiled  before.  This  is  the  picture  imme- 
diately around. 

In  the  distance,  to  the  north-west,  Leake's  Bluff 
rises,  while  the  outlines  of  Mount  M'Intyre  show 
more  dimly  on  the  sight,  and  then  a  thin  blue  line, 
extending  from  the  west  to  nearly  south-east,  shows 
where  the  ocean  limits  this  part  of  South  Australia. 
Mount  Gambier  is  not  very  high,  but  the  country 
is  so  uniformly  level  that  a  very  small  elevation 
gives  an  extensive  field  of  view. 

Descending  from  it,  and  making  for  the  cone 
with  which  we  are  at  present  occupied,  one  is 
astonished  at  the  rich,  the  meadow-like  appearance 
of  the  country.  After  being  out  some  time  in 
these  colonies^  We  become  used  to  a  certain  dried- 
up  appearance  in  every  landscape,  and  learn  to 
forget  the  flowery  pastures  which  used  to  meet  the 


BEAUTIFUL   LAND.  265 

eye  at  home  in  the  month  of  June.  At  the  sight 
of  the  country  at  this  mount  the  old  ideas  come 
back  with  vividness.  There  is  meadow  land  as 
thickly  studded  with  the  buttercup  and  blue-bell 
as  the  finest  hay-field  at  home.  '  Beautiful'  is  an 
adjective  which  comes  short  of  the  reality;  and  it 
may  be  doubted  whether  Somersetshire,  or  Kent, 
or  Leicestershire  could  produce  finer  meadow  land 
than  the  country  between  Mount  Gambier  and 
Mount  Shanck.  Alas !  that  this  should  be  a  rare 
exception  in  South  Australia. 

There  is  rather  an  extraordinary  thing  common 
in  the  rocks  about  half-way  between  the  two 
mounts  :  these  are  well-shaped  holes  in  the 
ground,  close  to  each  other,  and  though  they  de- 
scend perpendicularly,  no  bottom  can  be  found. 
One  is  about  a  yard  in  diameter,  others  being  less ; 
and  through  the  rnoss  which  covers  the  sides  one 
can  easily  see  that  the  fossiliferous  limestone  has 
been  bored  through.  If  any  solid  substance  is 
dropped  down,  it  can  be  heard  rumbling  for  some 
distance,  the  noise  growing  gradually  fainter  till  it 
dies  away,  but  no  stoppage  of  any  kind  can  be 
detected.  Supposing  the  lava  to  have  passed  un- 
derground in  this  direction,  it  would  not,  at  first 
sight,  seem  unreasonable  to  attribute  their  origin 
to  steam  arising  from  the  melted  liquid:  such  is 
the  opinion  of  the  people  here.  But  this,  perhaps, 
is  too  easy  a  theory  to  be  the  correct  one.  They 
may  be  accounted  for  like  the  sand-pipes  in  the 
chalk ;  but  as  they  occur  in  other  places  where  there 


266  THE    FLORA. 

is  little  probability  of  the  existence  of  lava,  they 
could  scarcely  have  arisen  from  steam.  They  have 
been  already  alluded  to. 

As  the  volcano  is  approached,  the  ground  becomes 
broken  and  very  hilly.  The  soil,  too,  is  less  rich, 
as  evidenced  by  the  quantity  of  stringy  bark  (Eu- 
calyptus fabrorum)  and  grass-tree  (Xantliorrlicea 
australis).  The  ferns  (principally  Pteris  escu- 
lenta,  Asplenium  laxum,  and  A.  flabellifolium} 
and  underwood  also  become  thick  and  intricate. 
By  and  by,  large  blocks  of  porous  lava  are  seen 
strewn  on  the  ground,  and  a  peculiar  brown  ash- 
dust  rises  under  one's  feet  on  crossing  the  numerous 
abrupt  spurs  which  run  out  from  the  base  of  the 
cone. 

On  ascending  the  steepest  of  these,  a  dense 
tangled  mass  of  vegetation  comes  into  view,  evi- 
dently surrounding  some  hollow  below.  Descend- 
ing towards  it  over  treacherous  and  steep  ground, 
hidden  by  brush,  and  taking  a  sweep  round,  to 
make  the  descent  more  easy,  the  bottom  is  reached, 
and  a  pretty  little  lake  comes  in  view.  Situated  as 
it  is  in  a  kind  of  dell,  it  wears  a  most  silent  solitary 
aspect.  The  lava  boulders  and  limestone  rocks, 
however,  jut  out  from  the  dense  and  high  brush- 
wood in  black  and  white  patches,  the  occasional 
slopes  of  silver  grass  gracefully  interrupt  the 
thicket,  and,  with  the  help  of  the  trees  which  hang 
their  branches  around,  the  loneliness  is  turned  to 
beauty. 

It  is  one  of  those  places  where  the  beauty  of  the 


SMALL   LAKE.  267 

Australian  flora  can  be  seen  to  best  advantage. 
The  tall  dark  tea-tree  (Melaleuca  paludosa)  re- 
flected in  the  smooth  water,  the  ferns  and  mosses 
making  a  carpet  underneath  the  mimosa;  the 
Bursaria  spinosa,  and  Calycothrix  scabra  with  its 
bushy  pink  flowers,  filling  up  the  interstices  in  the 
brush ;  and  the  whole  united  by  the  delicate  tendrils 
of  Comesperma  volubilis  with  its  network  of  blue 
blossoms ;  make  a  scene  as  beautiful  in  its  kind  as 
the  vineyards  of  Provence  or  the  rich  palm  scenes 
of  the  torrid  zone.  No  better  idea  could  be 
formed  of  this  little  place  than  from  Sir  W.  Scott's 
description  of  that  dell  whence  issued  the  skiff  of 
the  '  Lady  of  the  Lake.'  Had  South  Australia  been 
long  enough  inhabited,  this  spot  would,  perhaps, 
have  been  invested  with  traditionary  legends,  mak- 
ing the  mount  the  scene  of  wild  incantations  and 
the  resort  of  fairies. 

This  little  lake  is  just  at  the  foot  of  the  cone,  in 
fact,  almost  situated  in  the  side  of  it,  and  has  arisen 
from  a  small  eruption  which  has  proceeded  from 
its  centre,  probably  at  the  time  Mount  Shanck  was 
in  activity.  Very  little  lava  or  ash  has  come  from 
it;  of  course  some  has  come,  and  the  sides  being 
near  the  point  of  eruption,  the  ejectamenta  depo- 
sited immediately  after  their  egress  in  a  partially 
fused  state  have  formed  layers  of  scoriaceous  lava, 
which  evidently  commenced  flowing  back  to  the 
crater  before  cooling.  This  is  all  that  is  found. 
In  some  places  the  trap  lies  in  layers  just  as  it 
cooled,  and  in  others  it  is  broken  up  into  boulders. 


268  THE   LAVA. 

It  is  very  porous,  but  more  so  on  the  top  of  the 
layer  than  underneath;  the  latter  fact  is  easily 
explained.  The  pores  owe  their  origin  to  the 
escape  of  gases  from  the  melted  fluid,  and  these 
gaseous  bubbles  would  naturally  rise  to  the  surface, 
but  as  the  portion  exposed  to  the  air  would  cool 
first,  a  cake  would  be  formed  on  the  outside  which 
would  prevent  the  exit  of  the  bubbles,  and  so  they 
would  remain,  after  cooling,  in  the  shape  of  almond- 
like  holes  in  the  stone.  Those  who  are  familiar 
with  the  interesting  narrative  of  the  voyage  of  the 
Beagle,  will  doubtless  remember  the  description  of 
the  volcanic  bombs  found,  I  think,  at  Ascension 
Island.  Their  close  vesicular  structure  is  explained 
by  supposing  the  outside  to  have  cooled  while  the 
interior  was  still  in  a  state  of  fusion.  This  is 
somewhat  similar  to  what  has  been  just  said.  The 
same  phenomenon  has  been  used  by  Mr.  Henessy 
in  illustration  of  his  theory  of  the  slow  cooling  of 
the  earth. 

At  the  north  end  of  this  basin  and  on  the  east 
side  the  limestone  is  not  covered  with  ash,  but 
stands  out  in  small  escarpments,  even  far  above  the 
level  of  the  lava.  It  is  blackened  and  was  not 
formerly  fossiliferous,  being  of  the  uppermost 
limestone  strata,  which  in  this  formation  seldom 
contain  many  shells.  Probably,  the  reason  why 
it  stands  so  far  above  the  water-level,  and  in  broken 
masses,  is  because  the  spot  was  disturbed  by  a 
slight  earthquake  at  the  commencement  of  the 
eruption,  and  its  perpendicularity  explains  why  it 


THE    SMALL   LAKE.  269 

was  not  covered  with  ash  or  lava.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  this  lake  was  not  so  much  an  eruptive 
crater  as  a  spot  whence  issued  steam  and  a  small 
quantity  of  ashes. 

These  are  not  unusual  in  volcanoes.  There  is 
one  by  the  side  of  Vesuvius,  which,  though  it  sends 
forth  ashes  occasionally,  confines  its  operations 
nearly  entirely  to  steam ;  there  is  another  by  the 
side  of  Etna.  What  is  the  cause  of  them,  or  why 
the  main  crater  is  not  a  sufficient  outlet  for  the 
steam,  is  not  well  understood,  though,  when  they 
occur  independently  of  volcanoes  (such  as  in  the 
case  of  the  suffioni,  in  Tuscany),  an  explanation 
has  been  readily  found.  The  one  now  described  is 
certainly  a  supplementary  point  of  egress ;  for,  had 
it  been  a  proper  crater,  it  is  quite  large  enough  to 
have  given  rise  to  a  very  large  quantity  of  ash, 
whereas,  at  present,  the  walls  do  not  rise  above 
the  plains. 

At  the  side  of  this  lake  the  cone  of  Mount  Shanck 
rises  abruptly.  The  ascent  is  very  steep,  and, 
though  covered  with  thick  grass,  is  only  scantily 
supplied  with  trees.  Occasionally,  a  broken  frag- 
ment of  porous  lava  is  met  with,  but  with  these 
exceptions,  which  are  rare,  the  sides  are  smoothly 
sloping.  Going  to  the  top  of  the  cone  (no  easy 
matter,  for  the  inclination  is  enormously  steep,  and 
the  height  500  feet),  you  stand  on  the  edge  of  the 
crater.  It  is  a  deep  dark  abyss,  the  walls  around 
forming  a  complete  circle  of  almost  equal  height. 
Its  aspect  is  entirely  different  from  Mount  Gam- 


270  THE    CEATEK. 

bier,  though  quite  as  grand.  There  is  no  water 
at  the  bottom  to  give  it  that  air  of  placid  loneliness 
which  the  other  possesses ;  but  the  dark  stone  walls, 
occasionally  covered  by  a  verdure  which  the  shade 
makes  darker  still,  the  suddenness  of  the  descent 
and  the  yawning  look  of  the  chasm  give  it  a  wild 
sublimity,  grand  and  awful  of  its  kind.  The  whole 
depth  of  the  crater  does  not  probably  bring  it  much, 
if  at  all,  below  the  level  of  the  limestone  strata. 

The  shape  of  the  basin  is  oblong,  and  the  western 
side  the  highest.  In  this  particular  it  resembles 
Mount  Gambier,  but  there  is  not  much  difference 
between  the  highest  part  and  the  rest  of  the  walls, 
the  edge,  though  broken,  being  pretty  equal.  On 
the  west,  or  highest  side,  the  descent  to  the  bottom 
is  more  precipitous  and  sloping  than  on  the  eastern. 
In  the  latter  case  the  sides  slope  down  half-way  to 
a  kind  of  platform,  and  then  descend  in  broken 
undulations  to  the  bottom. 

On  the  exterior  of  the  mount,  at  the  west  side, 
there  are  the  remains  of  a  former  crater.  It  is  just 
a  half-circular  wall,  joining  onto  the  present  cone. 
Its  form,  however,  will  be  better  understood  by 
explaining  how  it  has  been  changed  to  the  state  in 
which  it  is  now  seen.  Supposing  the  circle  of  ash 
to  have  been  once  complete,  of  which  fact  there 
can  be  but  very  little  doubt,  the  point  of  ejection 
must  have  been  in  its  centre.  When  this  point 
cooled,  and  the  eruption  had  ceased  from  that  part, 
another  broke  out  right  in  the  middle  of  the  eastern 
wall.  This,  after  breaking  away  all  the  wall  which 


THE    CRATER    WALLS.  271 

was  over  it,  deposited  its  ashes,  scoriae,  &c.,  in  a 
circle  round  its  point  of  ejection,  thus  cutting  the 
old  crater  in  two,  and,  perhaps,  taking  the  ma- 
terials of  the  side  where  the  second  eruption  broke 
out  to  form  new  walls. 

The  most  perfect  cone  is,  therefore,  the  most 
recent,  and  it  has  certainly  been  the  most  extensive. 
The  old  crater  is  not  more  than  half  its  height. 
The  sides  of  it  are  steep,  both  in  the  interior  and 
externally.  They  are,  apparently,  more  loose  and 
more  decomposed  than  the  newer  crater.  The  ash 
seems  a  white  powdery  tufa,  with  fragments  of 
felspar,  porphyry,  and  scoriaa  embedded.  There  are 
large  trees  growing  both  on  the  outside  of  the  wall 
and  in  the  basin,  but  none  on  the  side  formed  by 
the  newer  cone.  Tall  gum  trees  are  common ;  and 
this  fact  is  the  more  remarkable,  as  there  are  no 
Eucalypti  to  be  seen  on  the  inside  of  any  of  the 
Mount  Gambier  craters,  and  there  are  no  trees  at 
all  on  the  inside  of  the  Mount  Shanck  cone.  Though 
shrubs  abound,  being  newer,  and  the  ash  less  de- 
composed, there  is,  probably,  no  soil  in  the  latter 
of  sufficient  depth  to  support  them.  The  side  of 
Mount  Shanck  which  slopes  up  from  the  old  crater 
is  so  fearfully  steep  as  to  be  almost  precipitous, 
and  it  would  be  almost  impossible  to  ascend  the 
mount  from  that  side. 

Returning  to  the  top  of  the  walls  of  the  higher 
cone,  and  looking  into  the  basin,  the  sides  are  seen 
to  be  composed  of  regular  layers  of  ash,  which  have 
hardened  into  a  vast  conglomerate,  like  the  higher 


272  THE    CRATER   WALLS. 

wall  at  Mount  Gambler.  In  some  cases,  there  has 
been  a  backward  flow  of  the  lava  which  has  bubbled 
out.  It  appears  twisted  into  strange  wreaths,  like 
the  gnarled  roots  of  some  huge  tree.  The  sides  are 
nearly  entirely  covered  with  vegetation,  except  at 
the  top,  but  there  are  places  where  the  black  ash 
is  undecomposed,  which  do  not  bear  a  sign  of  vege- 
tation from  the  top  to  the  bottom.  Looking  down 
the  crater  is  exactly  like  looking  into  a  large  funnel, 
so  very  narrow  is  the  bottom  in  proportion  to  the 
rirn.  There  is  no  break  in  the  side,  nor  outlet  of 
any  kind  for  lava ;  in  fact,  the  whole  process  of  the 
eruption  seems  to  have  been  limited  to  throwing 
up  masses  of  ash  until  it  had  burned  itself  out. 

It  is  interesting,  however,  to  know  that  the  state 
in  which  the  crater  is  now  seen  is  probably  the 
appearance  it  wore  (with  the  exception  of  the 
vegetation)  at  the  time  of  its  activity.  When  Sir 
Humphry  Davy  visited  Vesuvius,  he  says  that 
whenever  the  smoke  cleared  away,  and  he  could 
look  down  into  the  crater,  there  was  no  fire  to  be 
seen,  but  it  appeared  like  a  deep  black  funnel  com- 
ing to  a  sharp  point,  from  which  smoke  and  steam 
were  rising.  Every  now  and  then,  a  noise  was 
heard  like  distant  thunder,  which,  coming  nearer, 
seemed  to  end  in  an  explosion  at  the  bottom  of  the 
crater,  casting  up  volumes  of  ash  into  the  air,  and 
then  all  was  quiet  again.  The  crater  of  Mount 
Etna,  as  described  by  Sir  William  Hamilton,  seems 
to  be  just  similar,  —  a  dark  funnel,  with  no  fire 
visible,  casting  up  ash  in  an  occasional  explosion. 


THE  BOTTOM  OF  THE  CRATER.        273 

Thus  it  appears  that  both  resembled,  in  their  quiet 
state,  Mount  Shanck's  present  aspect. 

There  is  one  peculiarity  in  the  layers  of  ash 
which  is  worthy  of  notice.  On  the  western  side, 
close  to  the  higher  wall,  there  is  a  deep  indentation 
or  notch  in  the  lip  of  the  crater.  This  appears  to 
have  been  made,  after  the  deposition  of  the  side,  by 
some  explosion  or  other  violent  cause,  because  the 
strata  are  seen  to  be  sloping  from  the  bottom  up  to 
this  spot,  that  is,  dipping  away  on  each  side  from 
the  indentation.  This  shows  clearly  that  the  part 
in  question  has  been  a  high  point  in  the  side  of  the 
cone.  Indeed,  it  would  appear,  from  the  whole 
appearance  of  the  interior  of  the  crater,  that  this 
place  has  been  somewhat  similar  to  the  highest 
peak  of  Mount  Gambier,  for  the  general  bearing  of 
the  strata  of  ash  conglomerate  is  towards  the  point 
where  there  is  now  only  one  indentation  at  the 
summit.  There  must  have  been  an  elevation  there 
originally.  Probably  there  was  a  peak,  but  the 
walls  being  too  narrow  and  steep  to  afford  a  good 
foundation,  it  toppled  down  into  the  old  basin,  which 
is  just  on  the  other  side. 

It  has  been  said  that  there  is  no  outlet  for  lava 
visible,  that  is,  that  there  is  no  side  of  the  crater 
wall  broken  down  for  a  lava  current.  On  the  north 
side  there  is  a  very  distinct  stream  of  lava.  It 
comes  directly  from  the  side  of  the  walls  in  a  high 
heap  of  scoriaceous  fragments,  and  then,  instead  of 
continuing  in  a  regular  stream,  is  traced  onward 
by  a  succession  of  hillocks,  the  first  three  of  which 

T 


274  LAVA    STREAM. 

are  upwards  of  twenty  feet  high,  with  very  little 
elevation  of  lava  between  them.  It  makes  a  rapid 
curve  to  the  southward,  and  after  about  fifty  yards 
divides  into  two  or  three  separate  streams,  still 
preserving  the  same  uneven  outline,  only  that  the 
hillocks  are  much  smaller,  until  the  stream  spreads 
itself  over  the  surface  and  becomes  altogether  lost 
in  the  course  of  about  half  a  mile. 

During  its  course,  the  ground  appears  very  much 
broken.  When  it  is  said  that  the  ground  is  broken, 
it  is  meant  not  only  broken  up  into  hillocks,  but 
also  covered  throughout  its  length  and  breadth 
with  fragments  of  scoriag,  from  one  to  three  feet  in 
diameter.  Sometimes  these  boulders  are  gathered 
into  mounds,  as  though  piled  up  by  art,  and  again 
they  are  found  lining  a  deep  hollow;  but  whether 
rising  into  hillocks,  or  scattered  about  as  if  thrown 
from  one  centre,  they  all  keep  a  regular  line,  at 
times  diverging  from  due  north  and  south,  but  only 
to  make  a  slight  curve  and  then  return  to  the 
original  course.  It  appears,  in  fact,  like  the  course 
of  a  liquid,  and  this  was  really  the  case. 

It  seems,  for  many  reasons,  very  clear  that  this 
stream  proceeded  from  the  ancient  crater,  and  not 
from  the  more  modern  one.  In  the  first  place,  such 
a  stream  could  hardly  have  forced  its  way  from 
underneath  the  walls  and  not  have  caused  them  to 
give  way  above,  or,  at  all  events,  to  have  shown 
that  they  had  been  subjected  to  some  pressure. 
But,  on  the  contrary,  the  outline  is  quite  unbroken, 
and  does  not  at  all  appear  to  have  been  pressed  upon 


LAVA    STREAM.  275 

from  underneath.  If,  however,  we  suppose  the 
lava  to  have  proceeded  from,  the  old  crater,  and  that 
the  ash  was  subsequently  deposited  on  the  top  from 
the  second  eruption,  we  can  easily  understand  the 
appearances.  Again,  the  view  of  the  interior  does 
not  at  all  convey  the  idea  that  the  lava  had  pro- 
ceeded from  it.  But  the  elevation  on  the  eastern 
side  at  the  bottom  of  the  basin  seems  like  a  part 
of  the  old  stream,  the  rest  of  which  has  been 
destroyed  by  the  breaking  out  of  fires  underneath. 

Many  have  imagined  that  this  lava  stream,  from 
the  fact  of  being  piled  up  so  irregularly  in  heaps, 
is  nothing  but  the  scoriae  which  has  been  derived 
from  the  crater;  but,  on  examining  the  ground,  it 
will  be  seen  at  once  that  the  scoriaa  could  not  have 
arisen  from  the  adjacent  crater,  because  it  takes  its 
origin  close  to  the  north  side  of  it,  and  then  runs 
along  in  an  un  deviating  line  till  at  least  half  a  mile 
past  it.  It  need  scarcely  be  further  stated,  that,  if 
it  came  from  the  crater,  it  would  be  scattered  at 
least  half-way  round  in  a  semicircular  form,  the 
lafger  fragments  being  generally  nearer  the  cone. 
But  it  is  not  so.  There  is  a  regular  straight  line 
nearly  north  and  south,  occupying  only  one  side 
of  the  volcano,  and  pursuing  its  course  quite  inde- 
pendently of  it* 

This  line  of  lava  was,  then,  a  current  from  Mount 
Shanck's  ancient  crater ;  but,  in  supposing  it  to  be  so, 
it  is  not  easy  to  account  for  the  broken  undulatory 
character  of  the  scoria3.  It  has  been  stated  that 
the  pieces  were  piled  up  together,  and  sometimes 

T  2 


276  PILES    OF    SCORIAE. 

seemed  to  surround  hollows  in  the  ground.  This 
state  of  things  could  have  been  produced  in  two 
ways : — The  first  is,  by  supposing  the  upper  crust 
of  lava  to  have  been  heaved  up,  after  cooling,  by  a 
new  current  running  underneath.  This  would  raise 
the  stone  almost  upright  in  slabs,  and  probably, 
if  they  broke  afterwards,  would  form  the  piles  of 
scoriae  which  are  seen.  But  some  of  the  piles  are 
over  twenty  feet  high  near  the  point  of  eruption. 
This  might  arise  from  the  comparative  coolness  of 
the  lava,  which  would  make  it  flow  slowly  in  a  very 
thick  stream.  To  bear  this  out,  the  following  pas- 
sage from  Wittich  is  cited : — 

'  There  is  probably  no  other  liquid  matter  which 
is  possessed  of  such  a  degree  of  cohesion  as  running 
lava.  We  must  come  to  this  conclusion  when  we 
find  that  this  matter  does  not  spread  over  the  in- 
clined plane  down  which  it  runs,  but  forms  a  ridge 
having  exactly  the  shape  of  an  embankment,  or  a 
rampart  with  regularly  sloping  sides.  The  ridge 
is  commonly  of  considerable  height.  Even  small 
streams  of  lava  are  found  to  rise  from  ten  to  twelve 
feet  above  the  adjacent  ground.  Larger  streams 
are  sometimes  from  forty  to  fifty  feet  high.  The 
lava  which  issued  from  Skaptaar  Jokiil  was  at 
some  places  from  ninety  to  a  hundred  feet  above 
the  ground  over  which  it  had  flowed.'  * 

A  second  cause  of  the  piling  of  the  stream  might 
be  the  explosion  of  disengaged  gases,  where  the 
upper  part  of  the  current  had  cooled  and  the  under 

*  Curiosities  of  Physical  Geography.     London :  1855. 


PILES    OF    SCORIA.  277 

was  still  flowing.  In  illustration  of  this,  a  further 
quotation  from  the  same  author  will  be  pardoned : 
— '  Occasionally  a  very  loud  report,  similar  to  the 
firing  of  a  cannon,  is  heard  to  proceed  from  a  stream 
of  lava.  This  happens  when  the  lava  runs  over  a 
swampy  ground  or  a  very  moist  soil.  The  sudden 
conversion  of  the  water  into  steam,  and  its  decom- 
position, produce  a  commotion  which  for  some  mo- 
ments is  able  to  stop  the  progress  of  the  stream. 
The  stream  breaks  with  great  noise  through  the 
mass,  tears  asunder  the  crust  of  scoria  which  en- 
velopes it,  and  throws  both  the  lava  and  scoria 
into  great  confusion.  As  a  portion  of  the  stream  is 
decomposed,  the  hydrogen  explodes,  and  produces 
the  loud  report  above  mentioned  and  the  accom- 
panying flash.'  This  would  be  more  likely  to 
happen  when  the  lava  first  touched  the  ground^and 
consequently  near  the  crater,  where  most  disturb- 
ance of  the  lava  stream  of  Mount  Shanck  is  found. 
The  whole  thing  may,  however,  have  arisen  from 
the  manner  in  which  the  lava  flowed.  Most  ob- 
servers who  have  had  an  opportunity  of  witness- 
ing volcanic  eruptions,  such  as  Sir  W.  Hamilton, 
Dolomieu,  Dr.  Clarke,  &c.,  have  stated  that  a  flow 
of  lava  generally  moves  (when  cooled  to  a  certain 
extent)  in  large  uneven  sheets;  but  this  refers  to 
localities  where  the  flow  is  very  extensive.  In 
those  places  where  the  ejected  matter  is  small  in 
quantity  and  only  molten  in  the  centre,  the  stream 
(according  to  Mr.  Scrope,  quoted  by  Lyellj  is  like 
a  huge  heap  of  cinders,  rolling  over  and  over  as  it 


278  LAVA    STREAM. 

went  onward.  The  following  is  the  passage  : — 
'  The  surface  of  the  lava  which  deluged  the  Val 
del  Bove  (Etna)  consists  of  rocky  angular  blocks, 
tossed  together  in  the  utmost  disorder.  Nothing 
can  be  more  rugged  or  more  unlike  the  smooth 
uneven  superficies  which  those  who  are  unac- 
quainted with  volcanic  countries  may  have  pic- 
tured to  themselves,  in  a  mass  of  matter  which  has 
consolidated  from  a  liquid  state.  Mr.  Scrope  ob- 
served this  current,  in  the  year  1819,  slowly  ad- 
vancing down  a  considerable  slope  at  the  rate  of 
about  a  yard  an  hour,  nine  months  after  its  emis- 
sion. The  lower  stratum  being  arrested  by  the 
resistance  of  the  ground,  the  upper  or  central  part 
gradually  protruded  itself,  and,  being  unsupported, 
fell  down.  This,  in  its  turn,  was  covered  by  a 
mass  of  more  liquid  lava,  which  swelled  over  it 
from  above :  the  current  had  all  the  appearance  of 
a  huge  heap  of  rough  and  large  cinders,  rolling 
over  and  over,  chiefly  by  the  effect  of  propulsion 
from  behind.  The  contraction  of  the  crust  as  it 
solidified,  and  the  friction  of  the  scoriform  cakes 
against  one  another,  produced  a  crackling  sound. 
Within  the  crevices  a  dull  red  heat  might  be  seen 
by  night,  and  vapour  arising  in  considerable  quan- 
tity was  visible  by  day.'  * 

Now,  it  will  be  observed  that,  in  the  case  we  have 
to  consider,  the  flow  of  lava  was  very  small,  and 
therefore  must  have  solidified  very  shortly  after  its 

*  Lyell,  Principles    of    Geology,  9th  edit. ;   see  also  Scrope,  on 


ITS    OEIGIN.  279 

emission  from  the  crater,  and  so  probably,  as  the 
heaps  are  larger  near  the  crater,  and  smaller  as  the 
stream  is  followed  on,  it  is  because  as  the  first  became 
cool,  and  was  rolling  over  in  heaps,  fresh  lava  flowed 
underneath,  and  so  raised  them  higher  and  higher. 

And  now,  as  to  the  question  whether  Mount 
Shanck  is  in  any  way  connected  with  Mount  Gam- 
bier.  Let  us  first  suppose  that  the  lava  of  the 
former  flowed  towards  the  sea  underground,  a 
supposition  for  which  reasons  have  been  given  in 
a  former  chapter,  would  the  mere  underground 
flow  of  an  immense  fluid  mass  of  fire  give  rise  to  a 
volcano  like  Mount  Shanck?  Very  likely  the  ob- 
struction of  an  underground  flow  of  lava,  which 
would  cause  a  large  igneous  subterranean  lake  to 
collect,  would,  by  its  bubbling  and  seething,  give 
rise  to  a  sort  of  crater,  just  as  fissures  in  a  cone 
form  a  lateral  crater.  We  may  safely,  however, 
answer  in  the  negative  in  this  case.  Certainly 
Mount  Shanck  does  not  appear  so  large  as  to  have 
been  a  lateral  crater,  but  then  its  distance  from  the 
other  mount,  and  the  fact  that  there  is  evidence  of 
several  separate  eruptions,  point  out  two  distinct 
foci  of  disturbance. 

The  connection  between  these  two  extinct 
craters  was  of  a  deeper  origin.  They  both  belong 
to  some  great  area  of  disturbance,  which  not  only 
connected  them,  but  also  the  volcanoes,  to  be  de- 
scribed in  the  next  chapter.  Probably  no  two  of  the 
craters  of  either  of  the  mounts  were  in  activity  at 
the  same  time,  because,  as  they  must  be  regarded 


280  CONCLUSION. 

as  vents  or  safety-valves,  by  which  the  pent-up 
fires  underneath  sought  a  relief  for  their  steam  and 
gases,  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  that  one  point  of. 
eruption  would  not  relieve  localities  so  near  as 
these  two  cones.  This  is,  however,  a  matter  more 
of  connection  than  fact. 

It  has  not  been  mentioned,  that  for  four  miles 
round  Mount  Gambier  the  country  is  very  hilly. 
These  elevations  may  have  been  caused  by  earth- 
quakes which  preceded  the  eruption.  An  exami- 
nation of  these  hills  might  be  very  interesting,  as 
showing  the  way  the  earth-waves  were  transmitted, 
and  what  was  the  extent  of  the  shock  and  manner 
of  the  disturbance.  Very  little  disturbance,  appa- 
rently, took  place  round  Mount  Shanck,  though  the 
country  is  slightly  hilly  in  its  immediate  vicinity, 
and  one  or  two  circular  pits  occur. 

It  may  also  be  stated,  that  lava  from  the  second 
eruption  of  Mount  Shanck  may  have  flowed  to  the 
sea,  because  the  trap  which  is  found  on  the  coast 
is  directly  to  the  south  of  the  latter,  and,  conse- 
quently, to  the  south  of  Mount  Gambier,  which  is 
almost  due  north.  No  difference  in  the  compo- 
sition of  the  trap  which  is  found  on  the  coast  can 
be  traced,  even  so  much  as  a  separation  of  the 
strata,  for  it  dips  rapidly  into  the  sea,  and  very 
little  of  it  can  be  seen.  Whatever  other  traces  exist 
on  the  coast  is  difficult  to  say;  for  the  sand,  as 
before  remarked,  is  drifting  up  so  fast  that  even 
trees  are  buried  in  its  encroachments. 

The  coast  line,  as  seen  from  the  mount,  is  barren 


CONCLUSION.  281 

and  dismal  enough ;  but  on  a  closer  view  it  bears 
so  wild  and  lonely  an  aspect  as  almost  to  make  one 
shudder.  Large  and  dreary  swamps  covered  over 
with  dank  vegetation,  white  sand-hills  bearing 
patches  of  salt  bush,  and  cold  and  gloomy  cliffs  are 
all  that  meet  the  eye ;  while  the  sea  breaks  in  with 
such  a  heavy  surf,  that  even  in  calm  weather  its 
solemn  roar  may  be  heard  for  miles  around.  It  is 
seldom  visited  by  human  beings ;  and  when  a  vessel 
was  wrecked  there  some  time  ago,  the  dead  bodies  of 
the  poor  creatures  who  escaped  drowning  had  fallen 
to  pieces  in  the  rigging  before  their  remains  were 
discovered.  Forlorn  and  sad  as  it  is,  nothing  could 
be  more  in  keeping  with  such  solitude  to  think 
that  here  volcanic  fires  rolled  in  times  gone  by. 
A  long  time  ago  it  must  have  been — how  long,  in- 
deed, may  perhaps  perplex  mankind  till  time  shall 
be  no  longer.  A  thin  seam  of  shells  in  the  sands, 
far  above  the  water,  tells  us  that  even  the  sea  has 
retreated  since  then — that  the  waters  now  surging 
at  a  distance  were  once  beating  their  monotonous 
music  on  the  spot  where  we  can  now  stand,  bring- 
ing into  competition  the  noise  of  fires  and  the  rush 
of  waters.  The  stones,  so  full  of  strange  histories, 
tell  us  that  it  is  a  long  time  since  the  fires  rose ; 
and  the  trees  and  flowers,  quietly  growing  on  the 
softened  rocks  in  the  crater  itself,  tell  us,  by  their 
tranquil  growth,  that  the  fire  has  long  since  fulfilled 
its  Author's  work  and  disappeared,  leaving  for  ages 
the  black  and  empty  chasm  staring  into  the  heavens, 
lonely  and  desolate. 


282 


CHAPTER  X. 

THE    SMALLER   VOLCANOES. 

SOUTHERN     END     OF     THE     DISTRICT     ONLY     VOLCANIC. LAKE 

LEAKE. LAKE  EDWARD. CRATERS  OF  SUBSIDENCE. LEAKED 

BLUFF. MOUNT   MUIRHEAD. MOUNT    BURR. MOUNT   M(IN- 

TTRE  AND  MOUNT   EDWARD. LINE  OF  DISTURBANCE  CONNECTED 

PROBABLY     WITH     VICTORIAN     CRATERS. PERIOD     OF     THEIR 

DURATION,    AND    THE    TIME    WHICH   HAS   ELAPSED    SINCE    THEIR 

EXTINCTION. SUBMARINE     CRATERS. JULIA     PERCY    ISLAND. 

CONTROVERSY   ON   CRATERS   OF   ELEVATION   AND  SUBSIDENCE. 

BOTH    APPLICABLE    HERE. TRAP    NOT    ALWAYS    CONNECTED 

WITH   GOLD.  , 

IN  the  last  chapters,  we  have  been  occupied  in 
examining  those  extinct  volcanoes  of  this 
district  which  rise  in  the  form  of  cones  to  such 
a  height  as  to  entitle  them  to  be  described  as 
mountains.  In  this  chapter  we  have  still  to  do 
with  craters,  but  in  the  form  of  lakes,  and  with 
volcanic  phenomena  which  are  neither  cones  nor 
craters,  but  dykes  or  faults. 

It  has  been  already  mentioned,  that  the  volcanic 
disturbance  of  this  district  has  been  entirely  con- 
fined to  the  southern  end,  and  the  distance  between 
any  of  the  craters,  even  of  the  disturbed  district, 
is  so  small,  that  if  a  line  were  drawn  encircling 
the  whole  of  it,  it  would  not  enclose  very  many 
square  miles.  The  most  northerly  of  the  craters 


LAKE   LEAKE.  283 

is  Lake  Leake.  This  is  a  large  lake,  about  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  in  diameter,  very  deep  in  the 
middle,  but  shallow  on  the  edges,  with  reeds  and 
bushes  growing  all  round.  The  banks  are  very  even, 
seldom  rising  more  than  ten  or  twelve  feet  above  the 
water,  except  on  the  eastern  side,  where  there  is  a 
sudden  rounded  eminence,  about  sixty  or  seventy 
feet  in  height.  This  is  entirely  composed  of  volcanic 
ashes,  enclosing,  here  and  there,  small  fragments 
of  scoriaa.  This  hill  slopes  away  pretty  gradually 
on  the  side  opposed  to  the  water,  but  on  the  other 
side  it  is  precipitous,  descending  very  abruptly  to 
the  water's  edge.  With  the  exception  of  some 
black  mud  enclosing  scoriae  in  the  banks  all  round, 
these  are  all  the  volcanic  evidences  of  this  place. 

Close  to  it,  however,  and  a  little  to  the  south, 
there  is  another  crater  (Lake  Edward)  rather 
smaller  in  dimensions,  and  having  no  eminence  on 
its  banks.  This  is  also  an  extinct  crater,  as  may  be 
easily  ascertained  by  a  close  inspection  of  the  black 
mud  which  surrounds  the  edge  of  it.  It  is  very 
deep  in  the  middle.  Both  these  lakes  are  twenty- 
two  miles  from  Mount  Gambier.  They  are  rather 
singular  volcanoes,  and  I  am  not  aware  that  any 
parallel  to  them  is  to  be  found  elsewhere.  The  fact 
of  their  being  so  wide  and  deep,  showing  that  some 
very  extensive  igneous  disturbance  must  have 
caused  them,  and  yet  to  have  given  rise  to  a  very 
little  ash  and  no  lava,  seems  exceedingly  strange  ; 
in  fact,  they  bear  out  the  view  already  taken  of  the 
eruption  of  Mounts  Gambier  and  Shanck,  which 


284  THE  LAKE'S  ORIGIN. 

makes  the  craters  rather  exceptional  instances,  or 
departures  from  the  usual  manner  in  which  vol- 
canic eruptions  take  place.  Instead  of  these  lakes 
being  craters  of  elevation,  they  have  been  craters 
of  subsidence. 

On  the  banks  of  both  lakes  there  are  masses  of 
limestone  cropping  out,  occasionally  showing  that 
the  strata  were  not  upheaved,  but  the  lake  formed 
by  a  part  of  it  falling  in  from  volcanic  disturb- 
ance underneath,  and  giving  rise  to  a  chasm  through 
which  ashes  were  cast  forth.  It  appears  very  strange 
that  an  eruption  which  would  cause  such  large 
openings  in  the  surface  should  have  been  followed 
by  so  very  small  an  amount  of  ejectamenta.  Pro- 
bably these  chasms  may  have  been  caused  by  the 
void  arising  underneath  the  surface  from  lava  that 
was  pouring  out  elsewhere.  There  are  two  small 
hills,  perhaps  not  more  than  200  feet  high,  very 
near  the  lakes,  and  there  is  no  trap  rock  visible 
upon  them,  yet  their  rounded  outline  and  isolated 
position  suggest  a  connection  with  the  igneous  dis- 
turbance below ;  moreover,  their  strong  resemblance 
to  hills  to  be  mentioned  subsequently,  which  are 
certainly  volcanic,  places  their  origin  almost  beyond 
doubt. 

Returning,  again,  in  a  southerly  and  somewhat 
westerly  direction,  we  come  upon  Leake's  Bluff. 
This  is  a  high  bluff,  as  its  name  imports,  raised, 
perhaps,  500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sur- 
rounding plain,  almost  precipitous  on  its  south- 
eastern side,  and  sloping  away  quite  gradually  on 


LEAKE  S    BLUFF.  285 

the  NW.  The  precipitous  side  is  trap  rock,  very 
slightly  vesicular,  brown,  compact,  and  ringing 
under  the  hammer.  On  the  summit  there  is  some 
of  the  unaltered  coralline  limestone,  which  has 
been  tilted  up  by  the  trap  rock,  and  it  continues 
down  the  sloping  side  into  the  plain.  There  are 
a  few  irregularities  in  the  slope  such  as  would  be 
caused  by  the  upraising  of  such  a  mass  of  limestone 
and  its  doubling  over  on  itself  at  the  foot ;  beyond 
this,  however,  the  country  around  does  not  seem 
to  have  been  much  disturbed,  except  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Mount  Gambier,  where  hillocks  occur  like 
undulations  of  the  surface,  which  become  higher 

>  o 

and  larger  until  within  two  miles  of  the  latter 
crater,  where  the  country  all  round  is  disturbed, 
as  if  the  eruption  had  been  preceded  or  accom- 
panied by  earthquakes. 

This  bluff  deserves  some  consideration.  In  the 
first  place,  it  has  given  rise  to  a  fault  in  the  lime- 
stone strata;  that  is,  the  continuity  is  broken  by 
the  escarpments  of  trap  rock,  and  the  sequence  of 
the  strata  which  have  been  followed  thus  far  must 
again  be  sought  on  the  top  of  the  bluff.  On  the  other 
side  of  the  escarpment  the  hill  slopes  gradually 
down,  making  the  outline  like  the  segment  of  a 
circle.  I  suppose  that  at  the  point  of  junction 
between  the  trap  and  the  limestone,  the  latter 
would  prove  to  be  very  considerably  altered,  but 
there  is  no  opportunity  afforded  for  an  examination. 

Both  rocks  are  very  much  decomposed,  being  not 
only  disentegrated  and  covered  with  grass,  but  also 


286  MOUNT   MUIRHEAD. 

even  with  trees ;  but  the  limestone  on  the  surface, 
which  crops  out  at  a  little  distance  from  the  summit, 
is  decidedly  unaltered.  The  trap  could  not  have 
been  upheaved  to  its  present  position  in  a  state  of 
fusion,  not  only  because  the  outlines  of  the  escarp- 
ment appear  clearly  fractured,  as  though  broken 
when  in  a  state  of  solidity,  but  also  because  the 
general  character  of  the  disturbance  is  against  such 
a  supposition.  It  must  have  been  then  that  a 
large  quantity  of  liquid  lava  was  injected  under 
the  limestone,  and  there  cooled  under  the  pressure 
of  the  immense  mass  of  stone  above  and  the  force 
from  below  which  injected  it;  a  second  pressure 
from  below  upheaved  it  bodily  into  the  position 
in  which  it  is  now  seen.  It  is  impossible  now  to 
trace  the  extent  of  the  fissure  caused  by  this 
upheaval,  in  consequence  of  the  manner  in  which 
the  strata  are  decomposed  and  altered  on  the  sur- 
face. Doubtless  the  fault  continues  some  consider- 
able distance  on  each  side.  Had  this  been  a  place 
where  there  were  two  distinct  fossiliferous  forma- 
tions, more  remarkable  results  would  now  be 
seen. 

The  strata  containing  fossils  belonging  to  one 
period  might  be  traced  continuously  with  one  older 
than  itself,  which  had  been  raised  to  its  level,  but 
there  is  only  one  kind  of  fossiliferous  rock  here, 
and  therefore  no  mistakes  can  arise. 

North-west  of  Leake's  Bluff  is  Mount  Muirhead, 
which  is  a  conical  hill,  with  trap  rock  on  the  sum- 
mit, and  limestone  on  the  sides  all  round.  This  is 


MOUNT    BUER.  287 

a  trap  dyke.  It  would  appear  that  not  only  was 
the  trap  injected  through  the  strata,  but  it  flowed 
a  little  on  the  summit,  for  it  is  like  a  cap  on  the 
top,  and  very  vesicular.  The  soft  nature  of  the 
limestone  strata  caused  it  to  yield  a  great  deal 
to  the  pressure  underneath  before  allowing  the 
igneous  matter  to  break  through,  giving  rise  to 
a  dome-like  appearance  to  the  base  of  the  hill. 
In  other  places,  where  the  strata  are  very  hard  and 
compact,  and  lying  near  other  eminences,  which 
enable  it  better  to  resist  pressure,  the  trap  dykes 
make  a  clean  cut  through,  without  in  the  least 
raising  the  rocks  in  the  vicinity,  only  pushing  them 
a  little  back. 

Mount  Burr,  rather  more  to  the  eastward,-  is  a 
bluff  like  the  one  first  described,  with  this  difference, 
that  it  is  perhaps  a  little  higher,  and  has  no  trap 
rock  visible  on  the  escarpment.  Perhaps  it  slopes 
away  more  rapidly  on  the  north-western  side,  and 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  owes  its  origin  to 
an  upheaval  somewhat  similar  to  that  exercised 
in  the  case  of  Leake's  Bluff.  The  limestone  crops 
out  in  immense  quantities  on  the  summit,  and  ap- 
pears much  broken,  as  though  by  pressure.  Pro- 
bably, the  reason  why  the  trap  does  not  appear 
is  because  the  limestone  is  either  thicker  and  more 
abundant  at  this  particular  point,  or  the  trap  was 
injected  from  a  more  deep-seated  locality. 

Again  to  the  north-west,  is  Mount  Graham,  a 
trap  dyke,  like  Mount  Muirhead,  except  that  the  hill 
is  more  rounded,  and  extends  more  like  a  ridge,  in 


288  MOUNT    GRAHAM. 

a  north-west  direction.  On  the  summit  the  rock 
is  very  vesicular. 

About  four  miles  to  the  west  of  Mount  Burr 
there  is  another  mount,  called  Mount  M'Intyre, 
and  this  continues  on  in  a  chain  with  a  hill  called 
Mount  Edward,  until  close  to  Lake  Leake.  This 
is  also  a  hill  with  limestone  at  the  base,  and  trap 
rocks  at  the  top.  It  is  more  prolonged  than  the 
other  hills,  and  less  conical,  but  in  other  respects 
it  is  just  like  them. 

After  Mount  M'Intyre  there  are  no  more  vol- 
canic evidences.  The  range  disappears  into  a  lime- 
stone ridge,  very  little  elevated  above  the  plains. 
The  distance  between  Leake's  Bluff  and  Mount 
Graham  is  scarcely  eighteen  miles,  the  two  others 
(Mounts  Muirhead  and  Burr)  lying  between,  at 
the  distance  of  a  few  miles  apart.  There  is  little 
or  no  connection  between  them,  not  even  a  range  of 
the  most  insignificant  proportions.  They  stand, 
on  the  contrary,  almost  isolated  from  each  other, 
only  connected  by  the  identity  of  their  bearing 
from  Mount  Gambier. 

No  one  can  doubt  that  these  numerous  evidences 
of  former  volcanic  disturbance  in  this  district 
have  been  connected  together.  Not  only  is  this  to 
be  inferred  from  their  continuing  in  the  same  line, 
but  also  because  they  are  always  within  a  short 
distance  from  each  other,  and  confined  to  the 
southern  part  of  the  district — the  only  part^  indeed, 
where  there  is  any  volcanic  evidence  at  all. 

It  remains  to  be  asked,  what  connection  can  be 


CONNECTION    OF    THE    VOLCANOES.  289 

supposed  to  have  existed  between  them?  It  is  a 
well-known  fact  in  geology,  that  volcanic  disturb- 
ance is  very  seldom  confined  to  one  particular 
spot,  either  in  the  past  history  of  the  earth  or 
in  what  is  taking  place  on  the  earth's  surface  at 
present.  One  active  volcano  is  very  seldom  found 
alone,  and  extinct  craters  are  generally  grouped 
together  in  what  are  termed  volcanic  districts. 
The  only  apparent  exception  to  the  rule  is  in 
marine  craters.  These  are  isolated  at  times,  and 
then  are  either  extinct,  such  as  Trinidad,  Tristan 
d' Acunha,  or  active,  as  St.  Paul's  or  Graham  Island. 
In  the  latter  cases,  the  evidence  that  there  has 
been  no  other  disturbance  is  only  negative,  the 
depth  of  the  sea  around  preventing  any  certainty 
as  to  the  absence  of  other  craters,  from  the  diffi- 
culty of  an  examination.  There  are,  however, 
many  instances  of  extinct  and  active  marine  craters 
being  grouped  together  in  large  numbers :  the  Gala- 
pagos Archipelago,  which,  according  to  Mr.  Charles 
Darwin,  must  have  contained  upwards  of  3,000 
craters,  all  extinct,  and  the  Azores,  where  a  great 
many  signs  of  activity  still  exist. 

From  the  fact  that  these  phenomena  have  always 
been  found  associated  together,  it  has  been  inferred 
by  many  geologists  that  there  are,  or  have  been, 
in  volcanic  districts,  under  the  upper  crust  of  the 
earth,  lakes  or  reservoirs  of  igneous  matter,  whose 
gases  and  pent- up  forces  sought  egress  in  many 
points,  perhaps  at  some  distance  apart  from  each 
other.  These  districts  may  be  of  immense  size, 

u 


290  IGNEOUS   KESEliVOIKS. 

such  as  the  volcanic  parts  of  the  Andes,  in  South 
America,  which  occupy  so  immense  an  area,  or  of 
the  moderate  dimensions  of  the  locality  which  I 
have  just  described.  Now,  I  think  there  can  be  but 
little  doubt  that  Mount  Gambier,  Mount  Shanck, 
and  the  other  places  mentioned  above,  have  be- 
longed to  one  and  the  same  area  of  volcanic  matter, 
underneath  the  upper  crust;  and  the  general  north- 
westerly bearing  of  the  disturbance  is  due  to  the 
greater  diameter  being  in  that  direction,  or  from  a 
weakness  in  the  strata  tending  to  make  a  fissure 
more  easy  in  that  line  than  in  any  other.  Pro- 
bably this  district  was  not  an  independent  mass  of 
fused  matter,  but  rather  an  offshoot  from  one  more 
extensive.  At  about  fifty  miles  east  of  Mount 
Gambier,  on  the  Victoria  side  of  the  boundary, 
there  commences  an  immense  volcanic  district, 
which  may  be  traced,  with  very  little  interruption, 
to  Geelong  (250  miles  distant),  by  immense  masses 
of  trap  rock  and  extinct  craters  of  large  dimen- 
sions. This  kind  of  country  extends  considerably 
to  the  north  of  this  line ;  and  it  is  underneath  the 
trap  rocks  thus  found,  at  the  junction  of  the  Silu- 
rian slates  and  ancient  granites,  that  the  extensive 
Australian  gold-fields  are  worked.  This  large 
tract  of  country  has  evidently  belonged  to  one  im- 
mense subterranean  igneous  lake,  and  the  various 
craters  which  appear  are  evidences  of  the  manner 
in  which  it  has  sought  relief  from  time  to  time. 
It  appears  rather  more  ancient  than  the  Mount 
Gambier  district,  though  both  have  arisen  in  a  very 
recent  tertiary  period. 


CONNECTION    OF    VICTORIAN    CKATERS.  291 

If  this  is  to  be  accounted  for,  I  will  give  what 
appears  to  me  to  be  a  reason,  though  it  is  quite 
theoretical,  and  may  be  far  more  fanciful  than  real. 
After  a  long  duration  of  activity,  I  imagine  there 
was  a  period  of  repose,  during  which  not  only  the 
trap  rocks  and  the  lava  streams  on  the  surface 
have  had  time  to  cool,  but  also  the  upper  crust  of 
the  fiery  subterranean  lake  itself.  Supposing  now 
a  second,  but  less  violent,  period  to  supervene  j 
the  cooled  crust  and  the  overlying  rocks  might 
prevent  an  outbreak  directly  above,  and,  therefore, 
the  fiery  matter  would  find  an  egress  at  the  sides, 
where  the  superincumbent  strata  was  weak,  or  at 
the  sea,  where  there  was  much  less  resistance  to  be 
overcome.  This  may  appear  a  rather  extravagant 
hypothesis ;  but  in  all  probability  the  depth  of  the 
subterranean  disturbance  might  have  been  very 
great,  and  the  land  on  the  Victoria  side  being  much 
higher  than  about  Mount  Gambier,  the  actual  re- 
sistance to  pressure,  whether  by  a  cooled  crust  of 
lava  or  surface  trap  rock,  may  have  been  greater, 
on  the  whole,  than  the  force  required  to  send 
the  lava  in  the  direction  of  the  latter  place.  This 
would  account  for  our  volcanic  district  being  more 
recent,  and  the  existence  of  submarine  craters  near 
it,  which,  though  already  described,  will  be  here 
briefly  noticed. 

At  Portland,  as  already  mentioned,  there  is  most 
distinct  evidence  of  subterranean  volcanic  action. 
The  strata  of  basalt  underneath  the  Upper  Crag, 
and  on  the  south  side  of  the  bay,  over  the  Lower 

u  2 


292  SUBMARINE    CRATER 

Crag,  have  been  alluded  to.  These  have,  probably, 
proceeded  from  an  extinct  crater,  which  lies  about 
one  mile  from  the  shore.  It  is  called  the  Lawrence 
Kock,*  and  consists  of  a  small  flat  rock,  surrounded 
by  a  scattered  reef  forming  a  rough  circle,  and 
between  it  and  the  shore  another  long  low  reef, 
composed  of  scoriaceous  masses  of  lava.  The  rock 
itself  is  stratified.  The  uppermost  layer  consists 
of  decomposed  trachyte,  of  a  cream- white  colour, 
containing  disseminated  crystals  of  mica.  Under- 
neath this  there  is  a  thick  stratum  of  amygdaloidal 
lava,  the  base  of  which  is  black.  The  lime  which 
is  in  all  the  vesicles  is  of  a  transparent  waxy  ap- 
pearance. Under  this,  again,  the  stratum  is  a  mass 
of  tufaceous  deposits,  of  a  brown  colour,  loose  and 
friable,  and  containing  small  fragments  of  scoria. 
There  are  no  trap  dykes  near,  unless  some  of  the 
projecting  rocks  formed  of  compact  basalt  may  be 
considered  such. 

It  would  perhaps  be  taking  too  much  for  granted 
to  assert  that  the  rock  is  the  precise  site  of  the  vol- 
cano, though  the  semicircular  reef  near  it  seems  to 
favour  such  a  notion.  At  any  rate,  the  nature  of 
the  strata,  composed,  as  they  are,  of  eject  amenta 
of  such  thickness,  makes  it  probable  that  the  source 
of  them  could  not  have  been  very  far  distant. 
There  is  an  island,  called  the  Julia  Percy  Island, 
close  to  Portland,  but  at  such  a  distance  from  the 
land  as  to  render  it  invisible,  except  on  very  clear 

*  Running  through  this  rock  there  is  a  thick  trap  dyke.  This  may 
probably  be  the  '  cooled  chimney/  now  forming  a  hard  rock,  which 
has  resisted  the  sea  better  than  the  ash  deposits  around. 


AT   PORTLAND.  293 

days.  This  is  volcanic.  I  have  not  had  an  oppor- 
tunity of  examining  it,  but  I  am  informed  that  it 
principally  consists  of  compact  basalt.  It  may 
have  been  another  site  of  volcanic  emanations,  but 
this  is  only  conjecture.  It  is  evident,  however, 
that  the  land  has  been  upheaved  considerably  since 
the  outpouring  of  these  igneous  rocks.  That  of  the 
Lawrence  Rock  is  overlaid  by  the  crag,  which  could 
only  have  accumulated  in  a  pretty  deep  sea;  that 
of  the  island  is  overlaid  in  a  similar  manner.  The 
evidence  of  this  is  discussed  in  another  cKapter, 
and  need  not  be  recapitulated  here. 

Whether  or  not  this  crater  was  subsequent  to 
the  eruption  of  Mount  Gambier,  can  only  be  decided 
by  a  very  minute  examination  of  the  locality. 
There  is  one  evidence,  however,  offered  here  which 
it  may  be  well  to  allude  to.  The  disturbance  of 
this  district,  as  shown  in  the  large  number  of  ex- 
tinct craters,  must  have  extended  over  a  long  period 
of  time.  It  might  be  possible  that  one  or  more  of 
the  craters  which  are  at  a  distance  from  each  other 
were  in  activity  at  the  same  period;  but  this  can 
hardly  be  supposed  of  the  craters  which  are  close 
to  one  another,  such  as  the  different  lakes  at 
Mounts  Gambier  and  Shanck.  This  is  more  espe- 
cially seen  by  the  manner  in  which  the  ash  and 
lava  are  deposited,  as  already  described.  But  not 
only  are  they,  then,  separate  monuments  of  periods 
of  disturbance,  but  they  show  that  long  intervals 
of  rest  intervened  between  them.  Mr.  Poulet 
Scrope  states,  that  when  a  volcano  has  been  so 


294  CEATERS    OF    ELEVATION. 

long  at  rest  that  the  melted  rock  has  had  time  to 
cool,  the  next  eruption  is  obliged  to  make  a  new 
crater,  because  the  solidified  rock  in  the  old  chimney 
makes  an  irresistible  barrier.  The  occurrence,  then, 
of  so  many  craters  shows  not  only  that  the  erup- 
tions were  distinct,  but  also  were  separated  from 
each  other  at  such  an  interval  as  at  least  to  allow 
the  old  lava  in  the  chimney  time  to  cool  and  become 
solid.  Remembering,  now,  the  remarks  which  have 
been  made  on  the  slow  cooling  of  volcanic  pro- 
ducts, and  bearing  in  mind  the  number  of  con- 
tiguous craters,  we  can  easily  understand  how 
long  a  period  of  disturbance  this  district  must 
have  witnessed-  The  length  of  the  period  can 
only  be  inferred  by  analogy.  Vesuvius  has  been 
known  at  one  time  to  be  at  rest  for  many  hundred 
years,  and  then  its  eruptions  have  been  at  irregular 
periods,  sometimes  many  years  separated.  Pro- 
bably at  Mount  Gambier  the  different  craters  had 
time  not  only  to  cool,  but  to  allow  plants  and 
shrubs  to  mature  inside  them,  for  charcoal  is  often 
found  between  the  different  layers  of  ash  and 
basalt. 

In  describing  these  craters,  and  their  mode  of 
eruption,  Yon  Buch's  theory  has  very  often  been 
cited  as  to  the  crater-elevation  theory.  This  may 
need  some  explanation.  Some  time  ago,  the  geolo- 
gical world  was  much  puzzled  to  decide  between 
two  rival  hypotheses.  One  was  Von  Buch's  theory, 
which  supposed  all  volcanoes  to  have  been  what 
was  termed  craters  of  elevation.  The  theory,  ap- 


CRATERS    OP    ELEVATION.  295 

parently,  was  formed  rather  to  meet  a  difficulty 
than  from  any  stamp  of  probability  it  wore  in  other 
respects.  It  was  supposed  that  when  lava  and  ash 
conglomerate  were  found  on  the  side  of  volcanoes, 
in  very  highly-inclined  beds,  it  was  impossible  for 
them  to  have  remained  there,  had  their  inclination 
been  so  great  when  they  were  deposited.  To  meet 
this  difficulty,  it  was  imagined  that  all  eruptive 
craters  commenced  their  operations  by  forming 
cracks  or  fissures  through  the  level  surface,  and 
outpouring  ash  and  lava  upon  it ;  that,  after  this 
had  become  consolidated  to  some  considerable  thick- 
ness, the  whole  was  uplifted  by  a  subsequent  con- 
vulsion and  formed  the  cone.  By  this  means,  of 
course  the  beds  became  highly  inclined,  the  incli- 
nation in  proportion  to  the  height.  This  theory 
met  with  universal  approval,  not  only  because  it 
seemed  to  meet  all  difficulties,  but  because  it  was 
propagated  by  one  of  the  most  eminent  European 
geologists,  whose  services  to  science  cannot  be  too 
highly  extolled.  There  are  instances  which  seemed 
to  favour  the  theory.  The  cone  of  the  volcano  of 
Jorullo  was  uplifted  1,000  feet  in  a  single  night. 
Other  instances  were  also  supposed  to  be  furnished 
by  the  records  of  what  had  taken  place  in  the  erup- 
tions of  the  Bay  of  Baias.  There  were,  however, 
geologists  who  objected  to  the  general  application 
of  the  hypothesis.  However  well  it  might  account 
for  what  had  taken  place  in  one  or  two  localities, 
they  said  it  was  with  difficulty  reconcilable  with 
what  was  observed  elsewhere,  and  many  facts  were 


296  SOUTII-EASTEllN    CRATERS. 

directly  against  it.  Sir  Charles  Lyell  was  one  of 
the  first  to  object  to  its  being  applied  as  a  part  of 
the  history  of  every  volcano.  He  pointed  out  that 
at  Mount  Etna  the  trap  dykes  which  had  been  in- 
jected in  the  earlier  eruptions  remain  quite  vertical 
even  now,  and  that  the  Val  del  Bove  showed  more 
signs  of  subsidence  than  upheaval.  He  went  far- 
ther, and  tried  to  show,  that  even  those  craters 
(such  as  Palma)  which  Yon  Buch  had  personally 
explored,  and  declared  to  be  craters  of  elevation, 
were  not  so  certainly  the  result  of  such  a  process. 

Little  by  little,  like  all  theories  which  have  been 
formed  more  to  meet  difficulties  than  suggested  by 
facts,  it  has,  of  late,  fallen  much  into  disrepute: 
whatever  truth  there  was  in  it,  it  was  certainly 
too  generally  applied. 

The  object  of  mentioning  this  controversy  is  to 
point  out  how  here  it  may  be  seen  that  there  is 
probably  truth  on  both  sides  of  the  question, 
though  subsidence  is  far  more  common  in  volcanic 
phenomena  than  elevation.  To  the  latter  cause 
we  must  certainly  attribute  such  hills  as  Mounts 
M'Intyre,  Muirhead,  Leake's  BluiF,  &c.,  as  they 
appear  to  have  been  upheaved  bodily  from  the 
pressure  of  trap  underneath,  during  volcanic  dis- 
turbance. But  all  the  craters  have  had  some  sub- 
sidence in  or  near  them,  with,  perhaps,  the  excep- 
tion of  Mount  Shanck.  It  is  needless  here  to  repeat 
•what  has  been  said  of  Mount  Gambier ;  Lakes  Leake 
and  Edward  are  both  cases  in  point.  But  the 
principal  difficulty  about  the  inclination  at  which 


CRATERS    OF    SUBSIDENCE.  297 

lava  and  conglomerate  can  lie  must  certainly  be 
discarded,  because  many  of  the  circumstances  men- 
tioned in  the  previous  chapters  show  that  such  may 
be  deposited  and  rest  on  very  steep  inclinations. 

In  taking  leave  of  the  volcanic  features  of  this 
district,  it  would  probably  be  well  to  notice  the 
error  of  those  who  imagine  the  occurrence  of  trap 
rocks  to  be  an  indication  of  gold.  Because  gold 
is  found  underneath  basalt  (the  blue  stone  of  dig- 
gers), it  is  supposed  that  some  connection  exists 
between  the  two  deposits.  Now,  the  history  of 
such  formations  is  this : — Gold  veins  occur  in  rocks 
of  the  Lower  Silurian  age,  which  cropped  out  on 
the  former  soil  of  Victoria.  These  were  decom- 
posed by  the  action  of  water  in  creeks,  or  by  wea- 
thering. The  gold  thus  liberated  became  rounded 
by  attrition  into  'nuggets,'  and  deposited  in  the 
alluvial  soil  formed  of  decomposed  rock.  After  these 
operations,  and  in  no  way  connected  with  them, 
the  land  was  overflowed  by  lava,  and  many  creeks 
which  were  full  of  nuggets  were  thus  covered  over. 
Miners  are  sometimes  much  astonished  at  finding 
trees  and  fragments  of  pebble,  rounded,  underneath 
the  blue  stone  they  have  penetrated.  The  former 
existence  of  creeks  explains  the  difficulty.  One  of 
the  richest  gold-fields,  perhaps,  in  the  world  is 
worked  in  the  bed  of  an  ancient  creek  thus  covered 
over,  This  is  the  Clunes  Mine,  at  Creswick's  Creek, 
not  far  from  Ballarat.  To  look  for  gold,  then, 
because  trap  rock  occurred,  would  be  like  searching 
for  it  in  tertiary  limestone. 


298  CONCLUSION. 

Gold  has  never  yet  been  found  in  paying  quan- 
tities in  South  Australia,  although  there  are  doubt- 
less numerous  quartz  reefs  and  other  indications. 
But  such  signs  prove  nothing.  We  might  just  as 
well  be  disappointed  because  copper  is  not  found 
in  the  metamorphic  rocks  of  Victoria  as  well  as 
those  of  South  Australia.  As  yet,  we  know  but 
a  few  of  the  reasons  why  certain  minerals  are 
always  associated  with  certain  rocks,  and  we  must 
not  hastily  conclude,  because  we  have  the  latter, 
that  the  former  must  infallibly  follow. 

It  has  been  stated  that  there  are  some  granite 
rocks  found  in  this  district.  They  occur  in  the 
bed  of  the  Murray,  and  run  in  an  east  and  west  line 
across  the  desert  east  of  that  river.  They  occur, 
also,  in  small  localities  south  of  that  line.  They 
are  huge  rounded  rocks,  of  red  granite,  of  a  very 
coarse  crystalline  structure.  They  have  been  mis- 
taken for  drift  boulders,  but  they  are,  in  fact,  in- 
trusive, and,  though  the  Lower  Crag  has  been  per- 
haps deposited  around  them,  they  certainly  belong 
to  the  tertiary  period.  Their  line  of  elevation 
runs  at  right  angles  to  that  of  other  Australian 
mountains. 


299 


CHAPTER    XL 

CAVES. 

DENUDATION  AND  ITS  EFFECTS.  —  CAVES   IN   GENERAL. BONES 

IN    CAVES. CAVES    MADE    BY    FISSURES. HOW     BONES    CAME 

INTO    THEM. PARALLEL    INSTANCE    IN    SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

COURSE     OF     RIVERS    IN     CAVES. CAVES     IN     THE     MORE  A. - 

THE    KATAVOTHRA. THE    SWEDE'S  FLAT. OSSEOUS    DEPOSITS. 

HOW  BONES  BECOME  PRESERVED    IN   RIVERS. CAVES  WHICH 

HAVE     BEEN    DENS     OF     ANIMALS. KIRKDALE     CAVE. BEACH 

CAVES. PAVILAND     CAVE.  AUSTRALIAN     CAVES    WITH     RE- 
MAINS    OF     ABORIGINES. EGRESS     CAVES. THE     GUACHARO 

CAVES. OTHER    CAVES. CONCLUSION. 

AS  most  of  the  rocks  described  in  the  preced- 
ing chapters  have  been  of  a  loose  friable 
structure,  and  composed  of  limestone,  it  must 
naturally  be  expected  that  great  portions  of  the 
beds  have  been  removed,  and  that  consequently, 
evidences  of  denudation  will  be  found.  Denudation 
may  make  itself  manifest  in  many  ways:  either 
by  removal  of  large  masses  of  rock,  so  as  to  make 
breaks  in  the  strata  otherwise  unaccountable,  or 
by  the  rounding  of  outlines,  or  by  leaving  sharp  pin- 
nacles of  the  rock  that  has  been  spared  (of  which 
kind  there  are  so  many  instances  at  Guichen  Bay), 
or  by  the  chasm  caused  by  the  flowing  of  rivers,  or, 
finally,  by  caves,  which  owe  their  origin  to  various 
causes. 


300  CAVES. 

The  latter  kind  of  denudation  is  that  with  which 
we  have  to  deal  in  this  chapter.  Caves  are  so  com- 
mon in  this  district,  and  so  varied  in  their  charac- 
teristics, that  some  detail  will  be  necessary  to  de- 
scribe them  all.  I  mean,  however,  to  devote  this 
chapter  to  the  subject  of  caves  in  general,  and  the 
various  theories  which  have  been  proposed  for  their 
origin.  Properly  speaking,  this  should  belong  to 
a  work  on  geology  rather  than  the  description  of 
a  particular  district;  but  the  interest  of  the  sub- 
ject will  apologise  for  the  digression,  more  espe- 
cially as  it  will  convey  instruction  directly  eluci- 
dating what  is  to  follow. 

Caves  are  found  in  nearly  every  description  of 
rock,  but  more  particularly  in  two,  and  these  from 
entirely  different  causes.  These  are  trap  rock  and 
limestone,  the  former  being  generally  the  result  of 
violent  igneous  action,  and  the  latter  infiltration  of 
some  kind.  With  the  former  we  have  not  much  to 
do  at  present ;  but,  as  instances  of  the  kind  of  cave 
meant,  StaiFa  may  be  mentioned.  This  is  too 
well  known  to  need  description;  but  the  regular 
crystalline  form  of  the  sides,  and  the  nature  of  the 
rock  of  which  it  is  composed,  show  that  the  mere 
wearing  of  water  had  nothing  to  do  with  its  origin. 

The  other  kind  of  cave  is  that  which  occurs  in 
limestone,  generally  stratified,  but  in  any  case 
only  where  the  nature  of  the  rock  is  such  as  to 
admit  of  its  being  easily  worn  away  by  the  action 
of  water.  They  are  of  the  most  varied  kinds  and 
shapes,  but  admit  of  being  divided  generally  into 


».  CAVES.  301 

four  kinds,  as  follows : — 1.  Caves  which  have  arisen 
from  fissures  in  the  rock,  and  are  therefore  wedge- 
shaped  crevices,  widest  at  the  opening.  2.  Caves 
which  face  the  sea-shore,  and  are  merely  holes  that 
have  been  worn  by  the  dashing  of  the  sea  on  the 
face  of  the  cliff.  3.  Caves  which  open  to  the  face 
of  a  cliff  to  give  egress  to  water.  4.  Caves  whose 
entrances  are  holes  in  the  ground,  opening  very 
wide  underneath,  and  having  the  appearance  of 
water  having  entered  from  above. 

For  convenience,  these  will  bear  the  names  of — 
1.  Crevice  caves.  2.  Sea-beach  caves,  or  dens  of 
animals.  3.  Egress  caves,  or  passages  to  give 
egress  to  subterranean  streams.  4.  Ingress  caves, 
or  passages  caused  by  water  flowing  into  the 
holes  of  rocks,  and  disappearing  under  ground. 
Caves  of  these  four  descriptions  are  found  in  nearly 
every  country  where  the  limestone  rock  is  of  any 
thickness.  It  makes  no  difference  to  what  age  the 
rocks  belong,  as  these  subterranean  excavations 
are  quite  as  numerous  in  the  older  strata,  such  as 
the  carboniferous  limestone,  as  they  are  in  the 
modern  tertiary. 

As  long  as  observations  were  only  confined  to 
occasional  instances  of  these  phenomena,  each 
cavern,  as  it  was  explored,  seemed  to  give  rise  to 
new  features,  and  each  was  thought  to  possess  in- 
dividual peculiarities.  Now,  however,  that  obser- 
vations have  become  more  numerous,  and  oppor- 
tunities have  been  afforded  for  comparing  and 
collating  the  facts,  several  general  points  of  resem- 


302  BONES    IN    CAVES. 

blance  have  been  observed  between  all.  These  are 
given  at  some  length  by  Mr.  Phillips,  in  his  '  Manual 
of  Geology,'  and  I  shall  give  them  here,  adding 
such  particulars  as  I  have  been  able  to  collect  else- 
where, from  other  works  on  the  subject,  or  from 
observation.  First,  it  has  been  found  that  nearly 
every  cave  possesses  in  some  parts  of  its  flooring, 
either  embedded  in  stalagmite  or  in  the  dust  accu- 
mulated therein,  organic  remains,  either  bones, 
shells,  or  even  fragments  of  human  art.  In  most 
cases,  these  remains  were  found  to  have  belonged  to 
extinct  species  of  animals ;  and,  when  this  fact  began 
to  be  well  known,  and  was  found  to  hold  good, 
almost  universally,  it  was  supposed  that  these  re- 
mains bore  a  strong  confirmatory  testimony  to  the 
universality  of  the  Deluge.  But,  in  time,  this  view 
of  the  matter  was  abandoned.  Apart  from  the 
fact,  that  bones  resulting  from  the  Deluge  ought  to 
belong  to  existing  species,  because  the  earth  was 
repeopled  with  the  animals  destroyed  thereby,  two 
of  every  species  destroyed  having  been  preserved 
in  the  ark,  it  was  found  that  in  very  few  instances 
were  bones  found  under  the  same  condition. 

Again,  it  was  imagined  that  these  places  were  all 
resorts. for  beasts  of  prey,  who  naturally  look  for 
such  places  of  retirement,  and  would  bring  thither 
their  prey.  But  this  theory  was,  again,  found  not 
to  have  a  universal  application,  because  either  the 
bones  were  all  of  animals  too  small  to  have  chosen 
a  cavern  as  a  place  of  resort,  or  there  were  circum- 
stances connected  with  the  manner  in  which  the 


BONES    IN    CAVES.  303 

remains  were  embedded  which  precluded  such  a 
theory.  At  length,  it  was  decided,  that  though  the 
fact  Avas  universal,  the  manner  in  which  the  bones 
became  accumulated  was  different  in  nearly  every 
case. 

Some  of  these  circumstances  will  be  explained 
as  we  proceed ;  but  it  is  worthy  of  remark  here,  that 
the  osseous  caverns  are,  perhaps,  the  only  instances 
in  science  where  totally  different  causes  have  com- 
bined to  produce  universally  similar  phenomena. 

Another  peculiarity  noticed  in  caves  has  been 
that,  '  whatever  be  the  character  of  their  floor,  they 
assume,  at  intervals,  along  their  length  the  appear- 
ance of  a  great  fissure  in  the  rocks.'  Again,  '  very 
few  of  these  cavities  in  the  rocks  are  entirely  free, 
on  their  sides  and  roofs,  from  remarkable  depres- 
sions and  cavities  like  those  produced  on  limestone 
by  currents  of  water,  or  the  slow-consuming  agency 
of  the  atmosphere.'  Many  of  them  which  now  con- 
vey water  are  not  encrusted  with  stalagmite,  as 
the  Peak  Cavern,  in  Derbyshire. 

This  cave  shows  the  effects  of  erosion  by  water  so 
strongly,  as  to  impress  most  beholders  with  a  convic- 
tion that  the  whole  was  excavated  by  the  running 
stream.  We  will  now  proceed  to  mention  the 
different  caves  where  the  four  varieties  enumerated 
above  are  well  exemplified. 

With  regard  to  fissure  caves,  the  deposits  in 
these  are  more  easily  understood.  If  we  suppose 
large  rents  to  be  made  in  limestone,  either  by  up- 
heaval, earthquakes,  or  other  causes,  and  these  sub- . 


304  BONES   IN   CAVES. 

sequently  becoming  connected  with  caves  by  the 
drainage  of  surface  water,  there  is  no  difficulty 
in  perceiving  how  bones  may  become  embedded. 

In  the  first  place,  animals  might  be  easily  en- 
trapped, either  by  falling  in  by  night,  or  during 
a  sudden  flight ;  or  the  water  might  bring  down 
their  bones  from  the  surface  drained  by  it  during 
its  course.  A  good  instance  of  this  kind  of  cave 
was  discovered  in  a  hole  near  Plymouth,  which  was 
being  removed  for  stone  for  the  erection  of  the 
breakwater.  A  large  number  of  solid  masses  of 
clay  were  laid  open,  entirely  filling  the  cavities  in 
the  limestone ;  these  were  connected  with  fissures 
in  the  surface,  which  were  also  filled  with  the  same 
sort  of  clay.  In  this  clay  were  found  the  bones  of 
many  extinct  animals,  including  those  of  extinct 
deer,  tigers,  oxen,  foxes,  horses,  wolves,  &c.  Where 
the  surface  of  the  cliiF  was  exposed,  the  caves  ap- 
peared to  be,  in  nearly  every  case,  connected  with 
fissures  reaching  to  the  surface,  and  where  this 
was  not  evident  a  connection  might  reasonably  be 
inferred,  in  consequence  of  the  identity  of  the 
deposits. 

It  may  appear  unlikely  that  animals  would  be 
entrapped  into  fissures  in  the  manner  I  have  de- 
scribed ;  but  I  can  mention  an  instance  within  my 
own  knowledge,  which  will  quite  bear  out  the 
theory.  At  the  limestone  ridge,  about  twenty 
miles  east  of  Mount  Gambier,  and  in  the  colony 
of  Victoria,  there  is  a  small  hill  of  limestone, 
rather  more  elevated  than  the  rest.  This  is  com- 


BONES   IN   CAVES.  305 

pletely  undermined  with  caves,  which  run  in  all 
directions.  They  never  go  very  deep,  and,  con- 
sequently, have  never  much  thickness  of  rock  for 
their  roofs :  this  causes  many  circular  holes  in  the 
roof  of  the  cave,  which  are  perfect  pitfalls,  being 
covered  round  with  long  grass,  which  partially 
hides  them,  and  having,  in  most  cases,  a  clear  de- 
scent of  about  twenty  feet  to  the  bottom  of  the 
cavern.  In  following  the  windings  of  one  of  the 
subterranean  vaults,  I  came  once,  after  threading 
through  a  very  narrow  passage,  upon  a  chamber 
rather  more  spacious  than  was  usual  here.  This 
was  lighted  by  a  round  aperture  in  the  centre  of 
the  ceiling.  Immediately  under  this  there  was  a 
heap  of  kangaroo  bones,  bleached,  dried,  and 
heaped  rather  indiscriminately  together.  All 
round  the  chamber  there  were  bones  of  the  same 
kind,  scattered  occasionally,  mingled  with  sheep 
bones  (a  flock  of  sheep  was  kept  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood), and  the  flooring,  though  occasionally 
covered  with  a  loose  dust,  some  few  inches  deep, 
was  rapidly  becoming  embedded  in  stalagmite. 

There  could  be  no  doubt  that  these  animals  were 
all  precipitated  from  above,  when  either  feeding  or 
jumping  too  near  the  surface,  and  in  a  very  short 
time  this  vault  will  have  the  appearance  of  a  bone 
cave.  This  will  aiford  a  good  instance  of  how 
animals  may  become  entrapped  by  fissures.  In 
long  caves,  which  seem  to  have  been  the  course  of 
a  stream,  the  cause  of  bones  becoming  embedded  in 
the  floor  is  not  so  easily  accounted  for.  Generally, 

x 


306  CAVES    OF   THE   MORE  A. 

when  the  caves  are  those  which  have  formerly  been 
entered  into  by  rivers,  or  caves  of  ingress,  such  as 
mentioned  above,  the  water  has  ceased  running 
into  them,  or  they  could  not  be  explored,  and  there- 
fore the  fact  of  their  being  former  passages  for  a 
stream  is  more  or  less  a  supposition.  It  is  known, 
however,  that  rivers  do  continually  disappear  in 
countries  containing  much  limestone,  and  that  they 
sometimes  flow  underground  for  a  considerable 
distance  before  again  coming  to  the  surface.  Sup- 
posing, then,  that  they  caused  all  the  caves  that 
are  attributed  to  them,  would  they  necessarily 
carry  down  bones  and  fill  the  passages  with  them  ? 

In  answer  to  this,  I  will  give  the  observations  of 
the  gentleman  connected  with  the  French  expedi- 
tion to  Greece,  given  in  the  'Annales  des  Mines,' 
in  1833,  and  extensively  quoted  by  Sir  Charles 
Lyell,  in  his  4  Principles  of  Geology.'  It  appears 
that  in  the  Merea  there  is  a  great  deal  of  limestone, 
known  by  its  included  fossils  to  be  of  the  creta- 
ceous period.  There  are  regular  rainy  seasons  in 
that  part  of  Europe,  which  last  during  nearly  four 
months,  and,  at  this  time,  the  land  is  perfectly 
deluged.  Instead  of  running  off  by  streams  into 
the  sea,  the  water  falls,  in  most  instances,  into 
valleys,  which  are  quite  surrounded  by  hills.  It 
does  not  collect  in  these,  however.  The  valleys  are 
surrounded  with  large  fissures  in  the  limestone, 
called,  by  the  Greeks,  katavothra,  down  which  the 
water  washes  and  disappears. 

Many  of  the  katavothra  being  insufficient  to  give 


CAVES    OF    THE   MOKE  A.  307 

passage  to  all  the  water  in  the  rainy  season,  a  tem- 
porary lake  is  formed  around  the  mouth  of  the 
chasm,  which  then  becomes  still  further  obstructed 
by  pebbles,  sand,  and  red  mud,  thrown  down 
through  the  turbid  waters.  The  lake  being  thus 
raised,  its  waters  generally  escape  through  other 
openings,  at  higher  levels,  around  the  borders  of 
the  plain  constituting  the  bottom  of  the  enclosed 
basin.  In  some  places,  as  at  Kavaros  and  Tripo- 
litza,  where  the  principal  discharge  is  by  a  gulf,  in 
the  middle  of  the  plain,  nothing  can  be  seen  over 
the  opening  in  summer,  when  the  lake  dries  up,  but 
a  deposit  of  red  mud,  cracked  in  all  directions. 
But  the  katavothra  is  more  commonly  situated  at 
the  foot  of  the  surrounding  escarpment  of  lime- 
stone; and,  in  that  case,  there  is  sometimes  room 
enough  to  allow  a  person  to  enter  in  summer,  and 
even  to  penetrate  far  into  the  interior.  Within  is 
seen  a  suite  of  chambers  communicating  with  each 
other  by  narrow  passages,  and  M.  Virlet  relates 
that  in  one  instance  he  observed,  near  the  entrance, 
human  bones  embedded  in  recent  mud,  mingled 
with  the  remains  of  plants  and  animals  of  species 
now  inhabiting  the  Morea.  '  It  is  not  wonderful,' 
he  says,  '  that  the  bones  of  man  should  be  met 
with  in  such  receptacles,  for,  so  murderous  have 
been  the  late  wars  in  Greece,  that  skeletons  are 
often  seen  lying  exposed  on  the  surface  of  the 
country.  In  summer,  when  no  water  is  flowing 
into  the  katavothra,  its  mouth,  half  closed  up  with 
red  mud,  is  marked  by  a  vigorous  vegetation, 

x  2 


3C8  THE    KATAVOTHKA. 

which  is  cherished  by  the  moisture  of  the  place. 
It  is  then  the  favourite  hiding-place  and  den  of 
foxes  and  jackals;  so  that  the  same  cavity  serves 
at  one  season  of  the  year  as  the  habitation  of  car- 
nivorous beasts,  and  at  another  as  the  channel  of 
an  engulphed  river. 

*  Near  the  mouth  of  one  chasm  Mr.  Babbage 
and  his  companions  saw  the  carcase  of  a  horse  in 
part  devoured,  the  size  of  which  seemed  to  have 
prevented  the  jackals  from  dragging  it  in.  The 
marks  of  their  teeth  were  observed  on  the  bones, 
and  it  was  evident  that  the  floods  of  the  ensuing 
winter  would  wash  in  whatsoever  might  remain  of 
the  skeleton.  It  has  been  stated,  that  the  waters 
of  all  these  torrents  of  the  Morea  are  turbid  where 
they  are  engulphed,  but  when  they  come  out  again 
they  are  perfectly  clear  and  limpid,  being  only 
charged  with  a  small  quantity  of  calcareous  sand. 
The  points  of  efflux  are  usually  near  the  sea-shores 
of  the  Morea,  but  sometimes  they  are  submarine ; 
and,  when  this  is  the  case,  the  sands  are  seen  to 
boil  up  for  a  considerable  space  on  the  surface  of 
the  sea,  in  calm  weather,  in  large  convex  waves.' 

Eeaders  will  excuse  this  long  extract,  since  it 
bears  so  much  on  the  question,  more  especially  as 
in  this  chapter  I  propose  to  do  little  more  than 
quote  instances  of  caves  described  by  others.  I 
need  not  dilate  further  upon  caves  which  are  formed 
where  rivers  enter,  though  the  question  of  the 
deposit  of  bones  may  require  more  consideration. 
I  would  just,  however,  draw  attention  to  the  por- 


THE  SWEDE'S  FLAT.  309 

tion  of  this  quotation  which  I  have  marked  in 
italics. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  in  a  former  chapter 
I  described  a  large  enclosed  valley,  called  the 
Swede's  Flat,  in  this  district.  Thus  it  was  men- 
tioned that  the  natural  shape  of  the  flat  ought 
to  make  it  a  lake,  but  that  whatever  water  was 
received  by  it  ran  underground,  either  at  the  sides  or 
middle,  and,  where  it  goes  at  the  sides,  cavities  and 
hollows  are  seen  under  the  limestone,  which  crops 
out  much  water- worn  and  honeycombed.  There 
are  also  hollows  high  up  on  the  sides,  and  on  the 
islands  previously  described.  These  serve  as  chains 
for  the  water  when  either  of  those  below  are  stop- 
ped, or  when  they  cannot  carry  away  the  water  as 
quickly  as  it  comes.  The  drains  in  the  middle  of 
the  flat  are  those  where  by  far  the  greatest  quantity 
of  water  flows  away.  These  are  deep  circular  de- 
pressions, covered  in  summer  with  caked  mud, 
cracked  in  every  direction,  and  mixed  with  a  great 
deal  of  sand.* 

There  are  many  other  places  in  this  district 
where  large  swamps,  when  overflowing,  let  the 

*  Might  not  the  enclosed  valleys  of  the  Morea  be  the  remains  of 
chalk  atolls  ?  This  interesting  question  is  worthy  of  attention.  The 
resemblance  of  the  Swede's  Flat  to  the  Greek  valleys  is  very  great, 
as  far  as  a  description  will  enable  me  to  judge  of  the  latter.  However, 
I  am  more  and  more  convinced  of  the  probability  of  the  former  being 
an  upraised  atoll.  I  was  enabled,  a  short  time  since,  to  inspect  a 
section  of  sixty  feet  of  the  bottom  of  the  flat,  where  a  well  had  been 
recently  sunk.  The  deposits  were  just  such  as  are  described  to  be 
peculiar  to  the  lagoons  of  coral  islands.  The  bottom  strata  were 
much  honeycombed,  and  through  the  crevices  there  was  a  rush  of  wind 
which  extinguished  the  lights. 


310  UNDERGROUND    DRAINAGE 

surplus  water  flow  under  the  limestone,  and  these 
localities,  which  are  caves  in  course  of  formation, 
are  hollow  passages,  which  can  be  followed  for  some 
distance,  and  much  honeycombed  by  the  passage  of 
the  water.     I  wish  to  direct  my  readers'  attention 
to  these  facts,  because  they  will  assist  much  in  ex- 
plaining phenomena  that  will  be  mentioned  here- 
after;  but  I  would  have  it,  above  all,  remembered, 
that  sometimes,  in  consequence  of  the  stoppage  of 
the  drainage  at  low  levels,  the  entrance  to  caves 
forming  passages  to  subterranean  streams  may  be 
found  much  above  the  ordinary  level  of  the  country. 
And  now  for  the  osseous  deposits.     Is  it  neces- 
sary, it  may  be  asked,  that  rivers,  or  underground 
streams,  supposing  the  caves  to  be  formed  by  such, 
should  always  bring  down  bones?     It  must  be  re- 
membered, in  answering  this,  that   other  things 
besides  bones  are  found  in  caves  where  the  deposit 
is   recent   enough  to   have   them   un decomposed. 
However,  when  we  bear  in  mind  that  of  all  this 
debris,  borne  down  by  an  ordinary  stream,  the 
bones  of  animals  are  the  only  things  calculated  to 
resist  the  action  of  decomposition,  it  is  not  aston- 
ishing that  nothing  else  is  found  after  a  long  course 
of  ages.     That  other  substances  have  been  carried 
into   the  caverns,  and  subsequently  decomposed, 
there  can  be  no  doubt.     There  are  in  every  case, 
in  addition  to  the  stalagmite,  deposits  of  fine  black 
dust,  or  else,  if  the  moisture  is  in  excess,  a  finely- 
levigated  black  mud,  such  as  is,  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  derived  from  the  decay  of  carbona- 


BY    CAVES.  311 

ceous  matter.  We  must  consider  the  bone  stalag- 
mite, then,  not  as  deposited  in  the  manner  in  which 
it  is  found,  but  as  mingled  in  the  first  instance  with 
the  ordinary  debris  of  a  rapid  stream  passing  over 
a  locality  which  was  ordinarily  dry  land,  and  not 
the  bed  of  a  stream. 

In  corroboration  of  the  view  that  streams  would 
not,  after  a  long  period,  leave  any  record  except 
bones,  we  may  cite  the  instances  of  those  beds  of 
former  streams,  revealed  to  the  geologist  by  the 
upheaval  of  the  land.  The  Parnpsean  formation 
is  a  case  in  point.  This  has  been  celebrated  for 
enclosing  innumerable  bones  of  immense  animals 
belonging  to  a  former  period  of  the  earth's  existence, 
including  the  Megatherium,  the  Megalonyx,  My- 
lodon,  Macrauchenia,  Toxodon,  &c.  This  large 
formation,  which  extends  over  many  thousands  of 
square  miles,  is  composed  of  a  red  or  brownish 
ochreous  mud,  and  is  now  proved  to  have  been  the 
former  bed  or  estuary  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata.  Now, 
though  this  large  river  must  have  conveyed  down 
many  other  substances  besides  bones,  these  are  the 
only,  or  nearly  the  only,  things  preserved. 

Again,  the  upheaval  of  the  land  in  many  portions 
of  the  Australian  continent  shows,  as  banks  of  ri- 
vers, what  has  formerly  been  the  bed.  These  seldom 
or  never  contain  any  drift  wood  or  vegetable  matter, 
but  bones  of  animals  have  been  occasionally  found 
in  them.  And,  indeed,  a  moment's  reflection  shows 
how  this  happens.  Wood  and  light  particles  would 
float  for  a  long  time,  and  be  carried  out  to  sea, 


312  WHY    BONES   ALONE    ARE    FOUND. 

whereas  animals  drowned,  or  otherwise  carried  down, 
would  float  for  a  time,  and  then  finally  sink,  and  be 
buried  in  the  mud.  Now,  if  in  the  beds  of  rivers 
where  the  drowning  or  carrying  down  of  animals  is 
rather  the  exception  than  the  rule,  bones  are  found, 
how  much  more  so  in  the  beds  of  rivers  which  have 
emptied  themselves  into  caves !  For  these  would 
never  take  their  course  but  in  times  of  flood,  when 
the  waters  invade  the  land,  and  drown  many  land 
animals ;  and  if,  as  I  shall  show  in  the  case  of  Aus- 
tralia, the  most  predominant  bones  are  those  of 
animals  which  burrow  underground,  and  thereby 
the  more  liable  to  be  drowned  in  sudden  floods, 
there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  accounting  for  the 
osseous  deposit  in  caverns. 

In  enumerating  the  different  kinds  of  caves 
at  the  commencement  of  this  chapter,  I  spoke 
of  two  other  kinds,  namely,  beach,  or  those 
which  have  served  as  dens  for  wild  beasts,  and 
caves  which  serve  as  places  for  the  egress.  Of  the 
former,  the  celebrated  Kirkdale  Cave  is  a  good 
example.  It  was  found  by  accident  in  1821,  in 
quarrying  stone  in  the  limestone  peculiar  to  that 
part  of  Yorkshire.  It  was  a  long  narrow  passage, 
twenty-four  feet  long,  and  so  low  as  to  prevent 
a  person  walking  upright.  The  floor  was  of  sta- 
lagmite, but  underneath  was  a  bed  of  mud  contain- 
ing many  bones.  'The  surface  of  the  sediment, 
when  the  cave  was  first  opened,  was  smooth  and 
level,  except  in  those  parts  where  its  regularity 
had  been  broken  by  the  accumulation  of  stalagmite, 


BONES   IN    CAVES.  313 

or  ruffled  by  the  dripping  of  water ;  its  substance 
was  an  argillaceous  and  slightly  micaceous  loam, 
composed  of  such  minute  particles  as  could  easily 
be  suspended  in  muddy  water,  and  mixed  with 
much  calcareous  matter.  That  seems  to  have 
been  derived,  in  part,  from  the  dripping  of  the  roof, 
and,  in  part,  from  comminuted  bones.'  * 

There  was  a  great  variety  of  bones  of  different 
animals  found  in  the  mud  we  have  described ;  but 
from  the  fact  that  hyasna  teeth  and  bones  were 
more  numerous  than  any  other,  and  that  the  bones 
of  other  animals  were  broken  and  quarried,  besides 
the  great  quantity  of  hyaena  dung  mixed  up  in  the 
mud,  no  difficulty  was  found  in  concluding  that 
this  cave  must  have  been  a  den  for  hyaenas,  and 
that  the  bones  were  those  of  the  tenants,  mingled 
with  those  of  their  prey,  which  they  had  dragged 
thither  to  devour. 

With  this  description  of  cave  we  have  very  little 
to  do  in  this  work,  as  Australia,  with  the  excep- 
tion of,  perhaps,  one  lion,  possesses  no  predaceous 
animal,  unless  the  dingo  be  considered  one;  and 
this  does  not  live  in  dens,  or,  at  any  rate,  is  glad  to 
eat  his  prey  wherever  he  can  find  it.f 

*  Buckland's  Religuice  Diluviance. 

f  I  will  insert,  however,  a  quotation  from  a  letter  of  the  Govern- 
ment geologist  of  Victoria,  read  before  the  Geological  Society,  London, 
June  1,  1859  : — '  The  only  other  interesting  discovery  of  the  survey  is 
the  bone-cave  at  Gisborne,  about  twenty-five  miles  north  of  Melbourne. 
....  In  it,  embedded  in  light,  powdery,  and  perfectly  dry  soil,  we 
found  great  quantities  of  the  osseous  remains  of  birds  and  mammals, 
the  most  remarkable  being  perfect  skulls  of  the  dingo,  the  Tasmanian 
devil,  and  another  carnivorous  animal,  which  M'Coy  thinks  is  quite 
a  new  genus.  The  skull  is  in  shape  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  a 


314  PAVILAND    CAVE. 

We  have,  however,  to  give  an  instance  of  sea- 
beach  caves,  and  for  this  purpose  cite  the  note  of 
Sir  H.  De  La  Beche's  '  Geological  Observer,'  where 
he  speaks  of  the  Paviland  Cave,  Glamorganshire, 
and  of  the  human  remains  found  therein: — 'The 
cave  in  which  these  remains  were  discovered  is  one 
of  two  on  the  coast  between  Oxwick  Bay  and  the 
Worm's  Head,  part  of  the  district  known  as  Gower, 
on  the  west  of  Swansea,  and  formed,  in  great  part, 
by  carboniferous  or  mountain  limestone.  It  is 
known  as  the  Goat's  Hole,  and  is  accessible  only 
at  low  water,  except  the  face  of  a  nearly  precipi- 
tous cliff  rising  to  the  height  of  about  100  feet 
above  the  sea.  The  floor  at  the  mouth  of  the  cave 
is  about  thirty  or  forty  feet  above  high-water 
mark,  so  that,  during  heavy  gales  on  shore,  the 
spray  of  the  breakers  dashes  into  it.  Beneath 
a  shallow  covering,  Dr.  Buckland  discovered  the 
nearly  entire  left  side  of  a  female  skeleton.  Close 
to  that  part  of  the  thigh-bone  where  the  pocket  is 
usually  worn,  he  found  laid  together,  and  sur- 
rounded by  rubble,  about  two  handfuls  of  small 
shells  of  the  Nerita  littoralis,  in  a  state  of  complete 
decay,  and  falling  to  dust  on  the  slightest  pressure. 
At  another  part  of  the  skeleton,  viz.,  in  contact  with 

domestic  cat,  but  not  more  than  half  the  size,  and  there  are  only  two 
molars.  The  roof  and  sides  of  the  passage  were  narrow,  and  were  quite 
smoothed  and  polished,  evidently  from  the  frequent  passage  of  the 
animals  that  hare  inhabited  the  cave.  When  discovered,  all  these 
passages  were  so  completely  filled  up  with  earthy  matter  that  no 
animal  much  larger  than  a  rat  could  have  obtained  entrance.  When 
cleaned  oiit,  some  of  them  were  four  feet  high.' 


PAVILAND    CAVE.  315 

the  ribs,  he  found  forty  or  fifty  fragments  of  small 
ivory  rods,*  nearly  cylindrical,  and  varying  in  dia- 
meter from  a  quarter  to  three  quarters  of  an  inch, 
and  from  one  to  four  inches  in  length.  Their 
external  surface  was  smooth  in  a  few  which  were 
least  decayed,  but  the  greater  number  had  under- 
gone decomposition.  Fragments  of  ivory  rings 
were  also  observed,  supposed,  when  complete,  to 
have  been  four  or  five  inches  in  diameter. 

4  Portions  of  elephant  tusks  were  obtained,  one 
nearly  two  feet  long,  and  Dr.  Buckland  inferred  that 
the  rods  and  the  rings  had  been  made  of  the  fossil 
ivory,  the  search  for  which  had  caused  marked  dis- 
turbance of  the  ossiferous  ground,  the  ivory  being 
then  in  a  sufficiently  hard  and  rough  state  to  be 
worked.  Charcoal  and  pieces  of  nine  recent  bones 
of  sheep,  oxen,  and  pigs,  apparently  the  remains  of 
food,  showed  the  cave  had  been  used  by  man. 

'  The  toe-bone  of  a  wolf  was  shaped,  and  it  was 
inferred,  that  it  had  been  probably  employed  as  a 
skewer.  As  regards  the  date  when  this  cave  may 
have  thus  been  worked  for  its  ivory,  and  the  woman 
buried,  Dr.  Buckland  calls  attention  to  the  remains 
of  a  Roman  camp  on  the  hill  immediately  above  the 
cave.  Amid  the  disturbed  ossiferous  ground  there 
were  not  only  recent  bones,  but  also  the  remains 
of  edible  Buccinum  undatum  (whelk),  Littorina 

*  Similar  rods  of  ivory  were  found  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren  in  sink- 
ing for  the  foundations  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  London.  The  place 
was  supposed  to  have  been  an  old  Roman  cemetery.  Underneath  were 
found  sand  and  eocene  shells  (London  clay). 


316  EGRESS   CAVES. 

littorea  (periwinkle),  &c.'  I  have  already  stated 
that  this  quotation  was  more  for  the  sake  of  illus- 
trating the  kind  of  cave  meant  than  for  any  direct 
reference  it  has  to  Australia.  It  is,  however,  singu- 
lar, that  in  all  North  Australia  caves  have  been  dis- 
covered which  have  evidently  formerly  been  tenanted 
by  the  aborigines.  The  walls  around  are  covered 
with  rude  frescoes  in  red  ochre,  containing  emblems 

'  O 

as  curious  for  their  great  antiquity  as  showing 
some  remote  connection  with  Hindoo  designs. 

With  reference  to  the  egress  caves,  or  passages 
which  gave  egress,  whose  source  is  not  known, 
not  so  much  is  to  be  said.  There  are  none  in  Austra- 
lia, nor,  indeed,  are  there  many  in  the  whole  world. 
They  are  not  ossiferous.  The  origin  of  the  water 
in  them  is  not  known,  but  several  theories  are  ex- 
tant on  the  subject.  One  is,  that  they  are  con- 
nected with  immense  reservoirs  of  water,  which  col- 
lect from  infiltration,  like  artesian  springs.  This 
is  very  probable.  Most  of  my  readers  are  ac- 
quainted with  Humboldt's  description  of  one  he 
visited  in  South  America,  near  the  convent  of 
Caripe.  As  this  is  a  good  instance,  and  the  account 
is  replete  with  interest,  its  insertion  here  will  be 
excused,  in  a  condensed  form,  of  the  account  from 
the  '  Personal  Narrative '  which  refers  to  it. 

'  The  Cueva  del  Guacharo,  as  preserved  in  the 
vertical  profile  of  a  rock — The  entrance  is  towards 
the  south,  and  forms  an  arch  eighty  feet  broad  and 
seventy-two  high.  The  rock  which  surrounds  the 
grotto  is  covered  with  gigantic  trees;  but  this 


CUEVA   DEL    GUACHARO.  317 

luxury  of  vegetation  embellishes  not  only  the  ex- 
ternal arch,  it  appears  even  in  the  vestibule  of  the 
grotto.  We  saw  with  astonishment  plantain-leaved 
heliconias  eighteen  feet  high,  the  maya  palm-tree, 
and  arborescent  arums,  following  the  course  of  the 
river,  even  to  those  subterranean  places.  The 
vegetation  does  not  disappear  till  about  thirty  or 
forty  paces  from  the  entrance.  We  measured 
the  way  by  means  of  a  cord,  and  we  went  on 
about  430  feet,  without  being  obliged  to  light 
our  torches.  Daylight  penetrates  far  into  this 
region,  because  the  grotto  forms  but  one  single 
channel,  keeping  the  same  direction  from  south- 
east to  north-west.  When  the  light  began  to  fail, 
we  heard  from  afar  sounds  of  the  nocturnal  birds. 
As  we  advanced  into  the  cavern,  we  followed  the 
banks  of  a  small  river  which  issues  from  it,  and  is 
from  twenty-eight  to  thirty  feet  wide.  We  walked 
on  the  banks  as  far  as  the  hills,  formed  of  calca- 
reous incrustations,  permitted  us.  Where  the  cur- 
rent winds  among  very  high  masses  of  stalactites, 
we  were  often  obliged  to  descend  into  its  bed,  which 
is  only  two  feet  deep.  We  learned  with  surprise 
that  this  rivulet  is  the  origin  of  the  river  Caripe, 
which,  at  the  distance  of  a  few  leagues,  is  navigable 
for  canoes.  The  grotto  preserves  the  same  direc- 
tion, breadth,  and  height  for  1,458  feet.  We  had 
great  difficulty  in  persuading  the  Indians  to  ad- 
vance as  far  as  a  spot  where  the  soil  rises  abruptly 
at  an  inclination  of  sixty  degrees,  where  the  torrent 
forms  a  small  subterranean  cascade.  We  climbed 


318  CUEVA   DEL    GUACHARO. 

this,  not  without  difficulty.  We  saw  that  the 
grotto  was  perceptibly  contracted,  retaining  only 
forty  feet  in  height,  and  that  it  continued  stretch- 
ing to  the  north-east  without  deviating  from  its 
original  direction,  which  is  parallel  to  the  valley  of 
Caripe.' 

The  illustrious  traveller  then  goes  on  to  consider 
the  subject  of  caves  generally,  which  he  treats  in  a 
manner  worthy  of  his  patient  acuteness ;  but  his 
opinions  are  rather  behind  the  present  state  of 
science. 

Other  instances  might  be  mentioned  of  rivers 
issuing  from  caverns,  and  causing  the  same  charac- 
teristic appearance  of  a  straight  narrow  channel, 
of  nearly  equal  width  and  height,  different  en- 
tirely from  those  which  have  been  formed  by  floods, 
by  the  absence  of  tortuous  windings,  wide  chasms, 
and  deep  fissures. 

There  was  a  river  issuing  from  a  cave,  precisely 
similar  to  that  of  Caripe,  near  Tehnilotepec,  in  the 
western  Cordilleras  of  Mexico ;  but  in  the  night  of 
the  16th  of  April,  1802,  the  river  suddenly  ceased 
flowing,  bringing  great  ruin  on  the  inhabitants  of 
the  countries  through  which  it  formerly  ran ;  pro- 
bably, some  subterranean  disturbance  connected 
the  reservoir  with  another  outlet,  or  turned  it  into 
a  lower  stratum. 

We  have  now  gone  through  the  description  of 
caves,  according  to  the  classes  into  which,  for  con- 
venience, I  have  divided  them.  I  have  not  men- 


CONCLUSION.  319 

tioned  many  that  are  probably  more  interesting 
than  those  I  have  described,  because  I  only  wished, 
in  this  chapter,  to  illustrate  certain  principles  and 
theories,  and,  accordingly,  only  cited  those  which 
were  most  apt  for  the  purpose. 

I  might,  for  instance,  have  described  the  Mam- 
moth Caves,  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  which  are 
certainly  the  most  remarkable  in  the  world.  Many 
of  them  have  been  descended  for  hundreds  of  feet, 
and  streams  of  water  have  generally  been  found  in 
them.  Some  of  them  have  been  followed  for  many 
miles;  indeed,  so  common  a  feature  is  this  of  the 
country,  that  they  cease  to  attract  attention.  They 
are  generally  like  other  caves,  whose  roofs  and 
sides  of  limestone  are  encrusted  all  over  with 
stalactite.  There  is  one  cave,  in  the  Cumberland 
mountain,  of  such  great  depth  that  its  bottom  has 
not  been  reached. 

The  mention  of  this  district,  where  the  rock  is 
all  limestone,  and  of  so  loose  a  texture  as  to  be 
easily  undermined  with  caves,  reminds  one  of  the 
district  of  which  I  am  now  treating.  Here  the 
limestone  is  loose,  and  covers  immense  tracts  of 
country,  and,  consequently,  caves  are  so  numerous 
as  to  be  scarcely  a  matter  of  comment.  In  their 
description  the  next  two  chapters  will  be  occupied, 
and  it  is  in  order  to  understand  the  import  of  the 
various  appearances,  that  I  have  dealt  generally 
with  the  subject  in  this  chapter. 

I  have  shown  it  to  be,  commonly,  that  the  theory 


320  CONCLUSION. 

for  the  osseous  deposits  must  vary  in  every  case. 
What  views  on  the  subject  will  be  required  for  the 
osseous  breccia  in  the  cover  of  this  district,  will  be 
the  subject  of  the  next  chapter. 


321 


CHAPTER  XII. 

CAVES. 

CAVES  IN   GENERAL.  —  CAVES  AT  MOSQUITO  PLAINS.  —  FIRST 

CAVE. SECOND  CAVE. THIRD  CAVE.  —  DRIED  CORPSE  OF  A 

NATIVE. —  ROBERTSON'S  PARLOUR. —  CONNECTION  BETWEEN  IT 

AND   DEEPER   CAVES. CORALLINE    LIMESTONE. BONES. 

BONES  OF  RODENTS. OTHER  BONES. MANNER  IN  WHICH  THE 

CAVES  WERE   FORMED. FORMER  LAKE  NOW  DRAINED  BY  A 

CREEK. EVIDENCE    OF     FLOODS. NO    EVIDENCE   OF    THE 

DELUGE. CONCLUSION. 

OF  all  the  natural  curiosities  a  country  can  pos- 
sess, none  tend  so  much  to  render  it  famous 
as  the  existence  of  large  caves.  There  is  such  an 
air  of  mystery  in  the  idea  of  long  subterranean 
passages  and  gloomy  galleries  shut  out  from  light 
and  life — so  little  is  known  of  their  origin,  and 
they  are  generally  accompanied  with  such  beautiful 
embellishments  of  Nature — that  one  is  never  tired 
of  seeing  them,  or  of  hearing  the  description  of  those 
that  cannot  be  visited.  Thus,  every  one  who  may 
otherwise  never  have  heard  of  Adelsberg,  has  heard 
of  the  Adelsberg  caves,  with  the  renowned  pure 
white  stalactite,  which,  hanging  from  the  roof  like 
an  immense  snowy  curtain,  is  so  translucent  as  to 
show  torches  placed  on  the  inner  side.  In  like 
manner,  every  one  has  heard  of  the  caves  in  the 

y 


322  CAVES    IN    GENERAL. 

Peak  of  Derbyshire,  where  visitors  are  carried 
in  a  boat,  by  a  subterraneous  river,  along  a  passage 
scarcely  two  feet  high,  before  they  can  inspect  the 
inner  portion.  Persons  who  have  never  read  Hum- 
boldt's  '  Personal  Narrative '  have  at  least  heard  of 
the  Guacharo  caverns,  in  South  America,  described 
in  the  last  chapter,  which  are  tenanted  by  thousands 
of  owls,  whose  screeching  makes  the  place  like  a 
den  infernal.  Few  are,  perhaps,  aware  of  the  ex- 
istence of  the  caves  in  New  South  Wales,  described 
by  Sir  Thomas  Mitchell,  and  fewer  still  know  of 
those  in  Tasmania. 

But,  wherever  such  natural  curiosities  are  known, 
they  do  not  fail  to  give  great  importance  to  the 
place,  making  it  as  noted  as  if  it  possessed  a  burn- 
ing volcano  or  a  geyser  spring.  I  am  not  aware 
that  any  attempt  has  been  made  to  describe  the 
caves  we  possess  in  South  Australia.  Some  occa- 
sional tourist  may  have  notified,  in  a  stray  news- 
paper paragraph,  the  fact  that  such  things  existed ; 
but,  as  far  as  giving  an  account  of  their  rich 
and  varied  beauties,  as  far  as  relating  the  extraor- 
dinary natural  curiosities  that  are  to  be  met  with 
in  them,  nothing  at  all  has  been  done.  And  yet 
in  point  of  magnitude,  in  point  of  splendour,  and 
in  a  scientific  view,  they  do  not  yield  in  importance 
to  any  of  the  wonderful  phenomena  enumerated 
above.  In  this  chapter  I  propose  to  give  an  ac- 
count of  them,  which,  to  do  them  justice,  must  be 
rather  lengthy ;  for  to  bring  the  description  within 
small  limits  would  cause  many  things  which  are  of 


BLANCHE    CAVES.  823 

scientific  importance  to  be  omitted.  If  the  narra- 
tion is  long,  the  presumed  interest  of  the  subject 
must  be  the  apology. 

About  twenty-five  miles  north  of  Penola,  on  the 
sheep-run  of  Mr.  Robertson,  in  the  midst  of  a 
swampy  sandy  country,  plentifully  covered  with 
stringy  bark,  a  series  of  caves  are  found,  whose 
internal  beauty  is  at  strange  variance  with  the 
wildness  of  the  scenery  around.  There  is  nothing, 
outwardly,  to  show  that  any  great  subterraneous 
excavation  might  be  expected.  The  entrance  to 
them  is  merely  a  round  hole,  situated  on  the  top 
of  a  hill;  and,  were  it  not  for  the  existence  of  cer- 
tain temporary  huts,  and  other  unmistakable  signs 
of  the  former  frequent  visits  of  Bush  excursionists, 
one  might  be  inclined  to  pass  the  place  without 
noticing  anything  peculiar. 

On  going  to  the  edge  of  the  hole,  a  small  sloping 
path  is  observed,  which  leads  under  a  shelf  of  rock, 
and,  on  descending  this  for  a  depth  of  about  twenty- 
five  feet,  then  it  is  one  gets  the  first  glimpse  of  the 
magnificence  enshrined  below.  The  observer  finds 
himself  at  the  entrance  of  a  large  oblong  square 
chamber,  low,  but  perfectly  lighted  by  an  aperture 
at  the  opposite  end,  and  all  around,  above  and 
below,  the  eye  is  bewildered  by  a  profusion  of  or- 
naments and  decoration  of  Nature's  own  devising. 
It  is  like  an  immense  Gothic  cathedral,  and  the 
numbers  of  half-finished  stalagmites,  which  rise 
from  the  ground  like  kneeling  or  prostrate  forms, 
seem  worshippers  in  that  silent  and  solemn  place. 

Y  2 


324  BLANCHE    CAVES, 

The  walls  are  pretty  equal  in  outline,  generally 
unbroken  nearly  to  the  floor,  and  then,  for  the  most 
part,  they  shelve  in  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach, 
leaving  a  wedge-shaped  aperture  nearly  all  round. 
This  seems  devised  by  Nature  to  add  to  the  embel- 
lishment of  the  place ;  for  in  the  space  thus  left, 
droppings  of  limestone  have  formed  the  most  fanci- 
ful tracery,  where  pillars  of  every  shape  wind  into 
small  groups,  like  garlands  of  flowers,  or  stand  out 
like  the  portico  of  a  Grecian  temple,  the  supports 
becoming  smaller  and  smaller  till  they  join  like  a 
mass  of  carved  marble. 

At  the  farther  end  there  is  an  immense  stalactite, 
which  appears  like  a  support  to  the  whole  roof. 
This  shuts  from  the  view  the  aperture  in  the  roof 
behind  it.  so  that  the  light  steals  in  with  a  subdued 
radiance,  which  mellows  and  softens  the  aspect  of 
the  whole  chamber.  The  pillar  is  about  ten  feet 
in  diameter,  and,  being  formed  of  the  dripping  of 
limestone  from  above,  in  successive  layers,  seems 
as  though  it  owed  its  elaborate  appearance  to  the 
hand  of  Art,  not  the  least  beautiful  part  of  it 
being  that  it  is  tinted  by  almost  every  variety  of 
colour,  one  side  being  a  delicate  azure,  with  pas- 
sages of  blue  and  green  and  pink  intermingled  ; 
and  again  it  is  snowy  white,  finally  merging  into  a 
golden  yellow.  It  stands  upon  a  raised  platform 
of  stalagmite,  which  extends  some  way  down  the 
chamber,  about  three  feet  high,  at  the  end  of  which 
is  the  pillar. 

This  platform  has  been  a  mass  of  small  stalag- 


MOSQUITO   PLAINS.  325 

rnites,  which  are  now  joined  together  by  succes- 
sive droppings,  that  have  covered  them  over  in  a 
manner  not  unlike  the  spreading  of  a  linen  cloth. 
At  the  south  end  (the  entrance),  the  cave  looks 
as  if  prolonged  behind  each  side  of  the  narrow 
opening.  But  this  is  not  the  case.  There  is 
merely  the  same  continuance  of  columns,  like  those 
found  all  round;  somewhat  larger,  indeed,  and 
joined  together  so  closely  as  to  make  the  spaces 
look  like  the  pointed  arches  of  a  mediaeval  crypt. 
The  whole  length  of  the  cavern,  as  near  as  I  could 
ascertain,  is  about  190  feet,  the  width  about  forty- 
five  feet,  and  the  height  twenty  feet.  The  floor  is 
deeper  towards  the  middle,  so  that  the  latter 
measurement  varies.  Its  length  would  be  much 
greater,  and  it  would  run  into  the  next  cave,  but 
that  it  is  blocked  up  by  the  large  stalactite  I  have 
described  above. 

On  going  round  this,  and  observing,  still  on 
every  side,  the  stalactite  pillars,  the  opening  which 
lets  in  the  light  to  the  north  end  is  seen.  There 
was  evidently  no  aperture  here  formerly,  as  a  pile 
of  broken  limestone  shows  the  roof  to  have  fallen 
in;  and,  by  the  manner  in  which  the  damp  has 
rounded  the  sharp  fragmentary  outlines,  by  the 
way  the  heap  is  "covered  by  creeping  plants,  it  de- 
clares itself  to  have  happened  a  long  time  since. 
This  inlet  is  larger  than  the  one  at  the  entrance. 

The  second  cave  that  now  meets  the  view  is 
different  in  many  particulars  from  the  former.  It 
is  smaller,  and  so  thickly  studded  with  stalactites 


326  BLANCHE    CAVES, 

as  to  render  a  clear  glance  through  it  impossible. 
These  are  not  like  those  of  the  former  cavern,  dif- 
fering inasmuch  as  they  are  all  very  white,  and 
mostly  broader  at  the  top  than  at  the  base,  giving 
them  the  appearance  of  groined  arches.  Some 
are  thin,  and  look,  from  the  manner  in  which  they 
are  deposited,  as  if  they  were  gracefully  festooned 
in  honour  of  some  festival ;  some  are  mere  delicate 
shafts,  and  every  now  and  then  some  large  unfi- 
nished stalagmite  appears  in  the  form  of  a  veiled 
statue,  mysteriously  enshrouded  in  heavy  white 
drapery. 

When  this  chamber  has  been  nearly  traversed,  on 
looking  back,  it  is  surprising  what  a  different  aspect 
it  bears ;  one  would  think  a  dense  avenue  of  sta- 
tuary before  some  palace  had  been  passed,  so 
solemn,  so  great,  and  yet  so  life-like  are  the  curious 
wreathed  and  twisted  columns,  with  their  nume- 
rous groupings  and  strange  varieties  of  form.  At 
the  end  of  this  cave  (it  is  not  half  the  length  of  the 
first)  there  is  another  aperture  open  to  the  light, 
caused  also  by  the  falling  in  of  the  rock,  which 
once  arched  it  over.  It  is  a  large  circular  hole, 
whose  sides  are  precipitous,  with  a  smaller  pile  of 
broken  stone  in  the  middle,  as  in  the  one  last  men- 
tioned. It  was  here  that  many  years  ago  some 
natives  destroyed  300  sheep,  by  throwing  them 
from  above  on  the  hard  rock  below.  This  was 
about  the  time  they  were  committing  many  out- 
rages, including  the  murder  of  Mr.  Brown.  How 
the  settlers  revenged  themselves  is  shown  by  some- 


MOSQUITO   PLAINS.  a'27 

thing  farther  in  the  cave,  which  will  be  presently 
noticed.  This  opening  is  the  last  through  which 
light  gains  admission  to  the  vaults,  and  the  en- 
trance to  the  last  cave  is  on  one  side,  in  a  line  with 
that  just  quitted. 

This  one  is  so  thickly  studded  with  stalactites, 
and  these,  sometimes,  so  very  wide  at  the  base,  that 
from  the  outside  it  seems  like  a  carefully-arranged 
scene,  which,  from  the  interminable  variety  of  form, 
or  magic  effect  of  light  and  shade,  might  easily  be 
thought  intended  to  represent  a  fairy  palace.  On 
proceeding  a  little  way,  the  ground  becomes  pain- 
fully uneven.  You  have  to  climb  over  boulders, 
whose  summits  almost  reach  the  roof,  or  you  have 
to  descend  into  what  might  almost  be  called 
pits,  the  more  rough  and  uneven  because  of  their 
natural  ornaments. 

Very  soon  the  cavern  becomes  as  dark  as  night, 
so  that  no  further  exploration  can  be  made  without 
candles,  and,  even  with  these,  the  utmost  caution  is 
necessary,  as  there  are  pits,  caverns,  and  holes  in 
all  directions,  some  of  them  leading  to  other  small 
subterranean  passages.  There  is  one,  in  particular, 
which  is  a  great  fissure,  extending  nearly  from  side 
to  side.  It  is  very  deep.  The  sides  are  smooth 
and  slippery,  and,  as  light  is  thrown  into  its  gloomy 
depths,  the  sides  are  seen  to  be  divided  in  some 
places  into  columns  and  pillars,  making  even  that 
dark  place  elaborate  with  natural  architecture. 

Farther  into  the  cave  the  roof  becomes  lower 
and  lower  still,  surmounted  with  the  ghostly  white 


328  BLANCHE    CAVES, 

stalactites,  and,  at  last,  the  passage  onward  is  so 
small  that  one  must  stoop  very  low  in  order  to 
proceed. 

It  is  not  without  a  shudder  that  one  goes 
through  this  passage.  Far  away  from  the  light 
of  day,  this  groping  along  a  small  vault  makes  one 
dread  to  be  bent  down  between  stone  walls,  unable 
to  stand  straight  or  breathe  freely.  The  passage 
widens,  however,  when  the  last  chamber  is  reached. 
There  are  few  stalactites  here,  but  the  number  of 
boulders  increases,  so  that  to  explore  the  place  is 
to  climb  and  scramble  from  rock  to  rock.  At  the 
upper  end  there  is  an  immense  mass  of  stone,  by 
scaling  which  the  cave  is  seen  to  narrow,  so  that 
human  beings  can  hardly  go  farther.  There  are, 
however,  many  passages  at  either  side  of  this  and 
the  other  chamber,  some  of  which  have  been  ex- 
plored, and  it  would  appear  that  they  are  con- 
tinuous to  an  immense  depth  underground.  This, 
therefore,  may  be  called  the  last  chamber,  though 
filled  to  bewilderment  with  fissures  and  galleries 
which  may  lead  into  as  many  more. 

A  painful  stillness  reigns  in  this  last  cavern, 
which  becomes  positively  unbearable,  after  re- 
maining a  little  time.  Humboldt,  in  his  account 
of  the  caves  of  Guacharo,  complains  that  the  noise 
of  the  birds  dwelling  there  gives  an  awful  addition 
to  the  horror  of  those  underground  vaults ;  but  any 
noise  would  be  less  dreary  than  the  dead  silence 
which  reigns  here.  Whether  it  is  that  the  air  is  hot 
and  close,  or  whether  the  depth  compresses  the 


MOSQUITO    PLAINS.  329 

atmosphere  beyond  its  usual  density,  I  cannot  say, 
but  certainly  the  quiet  presses  painfully  upon  the 
sense  of  hearing,  and  the  closeness  gives  a  feeling 
of  smothering  which  adds  to  the  horror  of  a  place 
deep  in  the  earth  and  far  from  the  light  of  heaven. 

At  the  side  of  one  of  the  boulders,  on  the  right- 
hand  side  in  entering,  in  a  crevice  between  it  and 
the  wall  where  Nature  seems  to  have  made  a  na- 
tural couch,  lies,  in  the  position  of  one  asleep,  with 
the  head  resting  on  the  hand  and  the  other  limbs 
reclining,  the  dried  and  shrivelled  corpse  of  a 
native,  but  slightly  decayed,  and  almost  petrified 
by  the  droppings  of  the  limestone.  It  is  known 
to  have  been  there  for  many  years  without  de- 
composition, though  the  fingers  and  feet  became 
annually  more  encrusted  with  stalactite. 

The  history  of  his  coming  there  is  a  sad  one. 
The  blacks,  in  addition  to  the  destruction  of  the 
sheep  spoken  of  above,  committed  murder  and  so 
many  acts  of  violence  that  the  settlers  resolved  to 
be  avenged.  They  assembled,  and  set  out  with  the 
significant  motto,  '  Let  not  your  right  hand  know 
what  your  left  hand  doeth.'  The  natives  resisted 
desperately;  some  were  shot  in  every  part  of  the 
country.  One,  wandering  near  these  caves,  was 
seen,  and  brought  to  the  ground  by  a  rifle-ball. 
Badly  wounded,  he  managed  to  crawl  away  unob- 
served, and,  thinking  that  he  would  be  sought  for 
as  long  as  life  was  in  him,  crept  down  into  the 
lowest  and  darkest  recess  of  the  cavern,  where  he 
rightly  judged  few  would  venture  to  follow.  There 


330  BLANCHE    CAVES, 

he  lay  down  and  died.  Time  went  on.  Not  a 
tear  was  shed  over  him  as  he  lay  there  uncoffmed, 
but  drops  of  water  fell  upon  him  from  the  rock 
above ;  and  when,  a  long  time  after,  his  remains 
were  discovered,  the  limestone  had  encased  him  in 
a  stony  shroud,  which  to  this  day  preserves  his 
remains  from  decay.* 

The  limestone  alone  will  not,  however,  explain 
the  absence  of  eremacausis.  The  peculiarity  of 
the  atmosphere  has  something  to  do  with  it.  I 
noticed,  near  the  entrance  of  the  last  cavity,  the 
body  of  a  sheep,  which  had  evidently  fallen  from 
above  while  the  animal  was  too  incautiously  brow- 
sing on  the  tempting  foliage.  It  had  been  there 
some  time,  yet  the  flesh  seemed  as  if  but  lately 
killed.  The  chemical  property  of  the  air  does  not 
materially  differ  from  that  above,  and  no  satisfac- 
tory reason  appears  why  the  chemical  constituents 
should  not,  once  the  vital  stimulus  has  ceased,  re- 
act upon  themselves  in  this  case  as  in  every  other. 
The  same  thing,  however,  is  observed  in  many 
vaults,  and  probably  the  uniformity  of  temperature 
bears  a  part  in  the  phenomenon  of  which  the  re- 
nowned kings  of  Cologne  and  the  mummies  of  the 
Italian  cemeteries  are  instances. 

On  leaving  this  last  and  lonely  chamber  to  re- 
turn to  the  light,  a  narrow  fissure,  richly  wreathed 
with  limestone,  is  observable  on  the  right  hand 

*  An  enterprising  showman  has  since  stolen  this  body.  It  was  once 
recovered  from  his  hands,  but  was  finally  carried  off.  The  whole 
history  of  the  larceny,  and  the  attempts  of  the  Government  to  recover 
the  body,  form  a  very  amusing  incident  in  colonial  history. 


MOSQUITO   PLAINS.  331 

going  out.  Proceeding  a  little  way  down,  a  large 
vaulted  chamber  is  reached,  so  perfectly  dark  and 
obscure  that  even  torches  can  do  but  faint  justice 
to  its  beauty.  Here,  above  all  other  portions  of 
the  caves,  has  Nature  been  prodigal  of  the  fantastic 
ornament  with  which  the  whole  place  abounds. 
There  are  pillars  so  finely  formed  and  covered  with 
such  delicate  trellis  work,  there  are  droppings  of 
lime  making  such  scrollwork,  that  the  eye  is  be- 
wildered with  the  extent  and  variety  of  the  adorn- 
ment :  it  is  like  a  palace  of  ice,  with  frozen  cascades 
and  fountains  all  around.  At  one  side,  there  is  a 
stalactite  like  a  huge  candle  that  has  guttered  down 
at  the  side ;  at  another,  there  is  a  group  of  pillars, 
which  were  originally  like  a  series  of  hour-glasses, 
set  one  upon  another  from  the  roof  to  the  ground, 
and  the  parts  bulging  out  are  connected  by  drop- 
pings like  icicles,  making  them  appear  most  elabo- 
rately carved.  In  addition  to  this,  there  is  above 
and  below — so  that  the  roof  glistens,  and  the 
ground  crackles  as  you  walk — a  multitude  of  small 
stalactites,  which  fill  the  whole  scene  with  frostings 
that  sparkle  like  gems  in  the  torchlight.  In  one 
of  the  passages  leading  away  from  this  chamber 
there  is  an  opening,  which,  after  being  followed  for 
some  distance  (on  all  fours,  for  it  is  exceedingly 
small),  leads  into  another  spacious  chamber,  full  of 
stalactites,  open  to  the  sky  at  one  end  by  a  wide 
aperture.  This  latter  cave  was  known  for  a  long 
time  by  the  name  of  the  Deep  Cave,  and  was 
thought  to  be  quite  disconnected  with  the  ones  just 


332  ROBERTSON'S  PARLOUR. 

described.  Indeed,  it  was  at  one  time  believed  to 
be  almost  inaccessible,  as  there  is  a  clear  descent  of 
about  thirty  feet  from  the  roof  to  the  floor  of  the 
cavern,  but  quite  lately  there  was  a  communication 
found  between  the  two.  There  is  nothing  peculiar 
in  this  chamber  making  it  differ  much  from  the 
last.  Of  course  the  festooning  of  stalactites  is 
as  fanciful  and  full  of  beauty  here  as  elsewhere, 
except  that  they  are  rather  less  numerous,  and 
there  is  a  little  less  light  to  view  them  by.  At 
the  side  of  this  cave  there  is  another  cave,  probably 
also  communicating;  the  passage  has  been  dis- 
covered at  the  same  time.  This  is  exceedingly 
deep,  probably  over  sixty  feet,  and  only  a  wide 
spacious  chamber.  As  there  is  no  possibility  of 
descent  except  by  a  rope,  and  as  I  was  informed 
that  the  cave  possesses  little  that  is  interesting,  I 
preferred  to  wait  for  its  exploration  until  a  more 
practicable  passage  should  be  found  between  it  and 
its  neighbours. 

This  is  the  last  of  the  subterranean  beauties,  and, 
on  emerging  towards  the  opening,  the  fresh  air  and 
more  luminous  aspect  come  gratefully  upon  the 
senses.  Amazed  and  stupified  as  you  may  be  with 
the  beauties  left  behind,  one  feels,  as  the  eyes  be- 
come dazzled  by  the  approaching  light,  that  the 
greatest  beauties  of  the  earth  lose  half  their  charms 
when  shut  out  from  the  heavenly  radiance  of  the 
sky. 

I  have  now  to  allude  to  some  organic  remains 
and  other  curiosities  found  in  the  caverns.  On 
one  side  of  the  first  chamber  of  the  cave  just 


FOSSILS    OF   THE    CAVES.  333 

described  there  is  a  fine  section  of  the  coralline  fos- 
siliferous  limestone  of  which  the  rock  is  composed. 
Here  are  seen  immense  masses  of  the  Cellepora 
gambler ensis,  which  is  the  predominant  fossil  of 
the  formation.  It  is  standing  upright,  shrub-like, 
and  much  branched,  exactly  in  the  position  in 
which  it  grew.  This  must  have  been  very  near  the 
main  reef,  or  perhaps  formed  part  of  it;  at  any 
rate,  it  has  not  been  disturbed  since  its  growth, 
and  must  descend  to  a  much  greater  depth  than 
the  floor  of  these  caves.  Shells  are  common  on 
the  rocks,  especially  the  Pecten  coarctatus,  which  has 
been  so  often  spoken  of  in  a  former  chapter  of  this 
work,  and  at  a  small  distance  nearer  the  entrance 
the  coral  entirely  disappears,  and  white  limestone 
is  found  in  layers  varying  in  thickness  from  one  to 
six  feet. 

Next  among  the  important  organic  remains  of  the 
cave  are  the  bones.  It  has  not  been  mentioned,  in 
treating  of  osseous  caves,  that  the  bones  of  animals 
when  found  in  caves,  if  like  existing  species,  were 
always  much  larger  than  any  which  are  contem- 
poraries with  man. 

In  Germany,  in  Italy,  and  in  many  other  places 
wherever  bones  were  searched  for,  they  were  found, 
more  or  less  abundantly,  in  every  case,  similar  to 
animals  at  present  existing,  but  of  a  much  smaller 
size.  This  latter  point  is  of  much  importance,  and 
may  be  stated  as  having  become  almost  a  law  in 
geology,  as  it  is  applicable  to  almost  every  instance 
known,  that  the  animals  immediately  preceding 
those  at  present  existing  on  the  earth  were  identical 


334  THE    BONE    DEPOSITS. 

in    every  particular  with  the  present,  only  very 
much  larger. 

Knowing  these  facts,  and  also  knowing  that  our 
caverns  were  as  ancient,  according  to  appearance, 
as  any  mentioned  above,  there  is  nothing  surpris- 
ing in  finding  osseous  deposits  in  them  also.  Long 
before  I  had  visited  these  caves,  my  attention  was 
called  to  what  was  stated  to  be  a  small  pile  of 
bones,  which  were  found  one  day  by  the  accidental 
breaking  of  the  stalagmite  with  which  they  were 
covered  over.  On  examining  the  spot  indicated, 
I  found  they  were  in  the  raised  platform,  at  the 
foot  of  the  large  stalactite,  in  the  first  cave  alluded 
to  above. 

This  platform  is  about  fourteen  feet  long  by  eight 
broad,  and  I  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that,  ex- 
cepting the  thin  layer  of  stalagmite  on  the  top,  it 
consists  nearly  entirely  of  bones.  Nor  is  this  all. 
During  the  whole  length  of  all  the  caves,  wherever 
the  floor  is  sufficiently  level  to  enable  one  to  per- 
ceive it,  there  is  a  constant  reappearance  of  the 
broken  bones,  whenever  the  limestone  pavement  is 
broken  through.  How  deep  the  deposit  goes,  I  do  not 
know,  but  in  the  platform  just  named  I  was  able 
to  scrape  away  almost  to  the  depth  of  two  feet,  and 
found  the  deposit  as  thick  as  ever. 

The  extraordinary  manner  in  which  they  are 
agglutinated  together  is  also  worthy  of  remark. 
They  are  not  found  in  any  regular  position,  such 
as  would  be  imagined  had  their  owners  lived  and 
died  where  their  remains  now  lay.  Heads,  jaw- 


THE    BONE    DEPOSITS.  335 

bones,  teeth,  ribs,  and  femurs  are  all  jumbled  and 
concreted  together  without  reference  to  parts. 
The  quantity  of  small  animals  it  must  have  taken 
to  form  a  deep  deposit  of  their  bones — perhaps  two 
feet  deep,  ten  wide,  and  of  indeterminate  length — 
must  have  been  something  prodigious,  for  they  are 
compressed  into  the  smallest  possible  space,  and 
must  have  decomposed  from  exposure.  How  they 
came  there — a  question  which  has  puzzled  all  geolo- 
gists— I  will  allude  to  by  and  by.  We  have  first 
to  examine  to  what  animals  they  belonged.  The 
bones  which  most  predominate  are  evidently  those 
of  some  animal  belonging  to  the  order  of  Rodents. 
The  skulls,  teeth,  and  bones  of  these  abound,  per- 
haps in  the  proportion  of  three  to  one  of  any  other 
description,  and,  though  numerous,  it  was  with 
considerable  difficulty  I  could  find  one  entire  skull. 
It  may  be  described  as  a  low  flat  head,  with  the 
incisors  of  the  upper  jaw  coming  abruptly  out  at 
a  curve  from  the  bony  palate,  the  orbits  large,  with 
the  molars  on  each  side  pointing  outwards.  The 
incisors  of  the  lower  jaw  do  not  meet  those  of  the 
upper  when  both  are  in  situ,  and  there  is  a  consi- 
derable hollow  between  the  three  molars  and  the 
lower  part  of  the  incisors.  There  are  sixteen  teeth  in 
all — four  incisors,  and  on  either  side  of  both  upper 
and  lower  jaw,  three  molars.  In  this  case,  as  indeed 
in  all  the  Rodentia,  there  is  a  great  distance  between 
the  incisors  and  the  back  teeth,  but,  as  it  appeared 
to  me,  greater  in  the  skulls  I  am  now  considering. 
At  first,  I  was  rather  at  a  loss  to  make  out  the 


336 


BONES    OF    RODENTIA. 


exact  species  to  which  the  remains  formerly  be- 
longed. The  size  (about  an  inch  and  a  quarter  long, 


Skull  of  Eodent.  from  Caves. 


Lower  Jaw. 


Upper  Jaw. 


Teeth  of  Upper 
Jaw,  enlarged. 


Teeth  of  Lower 
Jaw,  enlarged. 


and  three  quarters  of  an  inch  wide)  made  me  in- 
clined to  refer  them  to  the  jerboa,  described  by  Sir 
T.  Mitchell  as  -occurring  on  the  Murrumbidgee ; 
but  I  looked  in  vain  for  the  long  tibia  which  should 
be  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  skull  of  such  an 
animal.  Besides,  the  teeth  were  only  three  in  num- 
ber, and,  though  it  is  suspected  that  the  fourth 
tooth  disappears  from  the  adult  jerboa,  their  struc- 
ture was  against  such  a  conclusion.  In  the  latter 
animal  the  enamelled  edge  makes  a  sort  of  sinuous 
or  waved  edge  around  the  whole  tooth ;  but  in  the 
ones  under  consideration  there  were  three  distinct 
septa  in  the  enamel  of  the  grinding  surface  on  the 
first  tooth  (the  anterior  and  largest),  and  two  in 
the  two  others.  After  having  referred  these  teeth 
to  an  animal  very  closely  allied  to  our  domestic 
mouse,  only  much  larger,  which  I  was  led  to  do 


BONES    OF    RODENTIA.  837 

after  some  consideration,  I  concluded  that  they 
belonged  to  an  extinct  species,  and  confirmed  the 
law  as  to  size  which  has  just  been  alluded  to. 
I  have  since  found,  however,  that  in  this  I  have 
been  mistaken.  My  attention  was  often  called  to 
little  mounds  of  sand  in  the  plains,  where  rushes 
grew  abundantly,  and  these  were  bored  on  every 
side  by  small  burrows.  For  a  long  time  I  was 
under  the  impression  that  these  were  caused  by 
bandicoots  (Perameles),  which  burrow  under- 
ground for  the  roots.  One  day  I  caught  one  of 
the  little  brown  creatures,  which  I  constantly  saw 
running  from  hillock  to  hillock,  and  into  their 
burrows.  To  my  astonishment,  I  saw  that  the 
teeth  corresponded  in  all  particulars  with  those  of 
the  rodents  in  the  cave.  As  the  species  is,  to  the 
best  of  my  belief,  new,  I  will  here  describe  it.  It 
is  of  a  dark-brown  colour,  the  fur  thin  and  fine, 
filled  with  longer  hairs  of  a  lighter  colour.  The 
anterior  limbs  have  four  complete  toes,  which  are 
sharp  and  compressed.  There  was  no  rudimentary 
thumb ;  the  hind  feet  have  five  toes,  which  have  also 
sharp,  compressed  nails.  The  two  external  ones  are 
much  shorter  than  the  others ;  the  muzzle  is  short 
and  blunt,  and  the  teeth  are  more  similar  to  the 
true  or  common  rat  than  any  of  the  Rodentia. 

Their  dentition  more  nearly  resembles  the  true 
rat  tribe  than  any  of  the  same  family ;  the  whole  ani- 
mal resembles  the  Cape  otomys  (whose  dentition  is 
also  an  approach  to  the  true  rat),  and  doubtless  will 
be  found  to  form  a  link  of  connection  between  the 

z 


338  BONES    OF    KODENTIA. 

two  species.  I  must  further  remark,  that  it  does 
not  belong  to  any  of  the  present  catalogued  species 
of  rodents  belonging  to  Australia.  There  are 
fourteen  species  peculiar  to  Australia,  and  two 
water  rats.  Two  are  peculiar  to  Tasmania,  two 
to  Port  Essington,  and  the  rest  common  to  the 
southern  part  of  the  continent.  As  far  as  I  am 
aware,  it  is  not  one  of  these.  However,  its  bones 
are  the  predominant  ones  in  the  cave,  and  the 
habits  of  the  animal  easily  explain  the  peculiarity. 
As  it  will  be  shown  hereafter,  these  caves  owed 
their  origin  to  times  of  flood  or  inundation ;  and 
those  animals  whose  habits  led  them  to  burro  win  low 
flat  lands  would  be,  of  all  others,  the  most  likely 
to  become  the  first  victims  of  such  a  visitation. 
The  foregoing  drawings  of  the  skull  are  from  a  cave 
specimen.  The  conclusion  is  rather  ludicrous. 

'  Parturiunt  montes,  nascetur  ridiculus  mus.' 

These  bones,  instead  of  belonging  to  extinct 
animals,  are  those  of  animals  existing  within  a 
short  distance  of  the  caves.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  the  bones  by  which  these  are  accompanied. 
The  first  and  most  common,  next  to  those  above, 
are  long  jaw-bones,  with  four  molars,  three  false 
molars,  one  canine,  and  three  incisors  on  each 
side ;  the  condyle  a  flat  well-defined  hinge,  and  the 
coronoid  process  sloping  back  at  a  very  obtuse 
angle,  so  as  not  to  be  raised  much  above  the  plane 
of  the  jaw.  These  features  would  seem  to  imply 
an  animal  with  a  long,  low,  flat  head,  of  predatory 


OTHER   BONES.  339 

habits,  bearing  great  resemblance  to  the  long-nosed 
bandicoot  (Perameles  nasuta),  to  which,  or  to  a 
nearly  allied  species,  no  doubt  the  bones  belonged. 
These  animals  also  burrow  in  low  grounds. 

The  second  are  the  jaws  of  an  animal  not  un- 
like the  Myrmecobius,  with  two  false  molars  more 
than  the  native  cat,  and  the  condyle  very  imper- 
fectly developed.  I  must  mention  that  the  angular 
process  or  inflection  of  the  side  of  the  jaw  was 
most  perfect  in  this  instance,  making  it  extremely 
doubtful  whether  the  animal  was  of  the  marsupial 
order;  yet  the  animal  was  of  that  order,  and  the 
species  is  yet  existing  in  the  neighbourhood  as  the 
Phascogale  penicillata,  or  native  squirrel,  a  pretty 
little  animal,  eight  inches  long,  with  a  long  pencil- 
lated  black  tail,  and  the  rest  of  the  fur  a  light  grey, 
exquisitely  soft  and  delicate.  This  little  animal  is 
most  destructive  and  pugnacious,  living  in  dead 
hollow  trees,  and  I  have  only  seen  it  near  lowland. 

To  this  family  also  belong  the  bones  of  a  small 
animal  not  uncommon  in  the  stalagmite.  The  jaw- 
bones are  about  five- eighths  of  an  inch  long,  and 
distinguished  by  the  extraordinary  sharpness  of 
the  needle-like  protuberances  on  the  crown  of  the 
molars.  The  animal  previously  mentioned  has 
Very  pointed  crowns  to  the  molars,  and  false  molar 
teeth,  but  those  of  the  latter  are  quite  as  minute 
and  sharp  as  those  of  the  bat,  to  which  animal  the 
dentition  bears  a  strong  resemblance.  I  presume 
the  animal  possessing  them  was  the  Phascogale 
pygmcea,  a  small  variety  of  the  Phascogale,  which 

z  2 


340  OTHER   BONES. 

is  not  now  common.  It  is  mostly  found  in  the 
more  northern  parts  of  this  district,  and  frequents 
trees,  burrowing  near  their  roots. 

The  next  was  an  animal  possessing  canine  teeth, 
which  bore  an  extraordinary  disproportion  to  the 
others.  There  were  in  addition,  on  each  side,  five 
molars,  one  false  molar,  and  three  incisors.  The 
condyle,  coronoid,  and  angular  process  much  resem- 
bled those  next-mentioned  animals,  probably  both 
insectivorous  and  carnivorous,  from  the  form  of 
the  teeth.  Next  were  the  bones  of  an  animal  as 
nearly  as  possible  resembling  our  native  cat  (Dasy- 
urus  Maugii,  or  the  spotted  opossum  of  the  early 
settlers),  though  not  identical.  I  could  find  no 
perfect  adult  specimen  of  the  lower  jaw. 

Both  these  animals  belonged  to  the  same  family 
of  Dasyurus,  but  the  first-mentioned,  or  smaller 
variety,  with  large  canine  teeth,  does  not  at  present 
exist,  as  far  as  my  knowledge  extends.  The  latter 
is  a  very  common  frequenter  of  houses  in  Australia, 
being  as  destructive  and  vicious  as  the  rat  at  home, 
whose  place  in  domestic  economy  it  usurps  in  this 
colony.  In  its  wild  state  it  lives  under  rocks  and 
stones,  in  fact,  in  any  underground  cavity,  but  it 
does  not  burrow,  and  only  takes  to  trees  when  pur- 
sued, or  at  night  in  search  of  birds,  which  it  kills 
while  roosting.  Besides  these  bones  there  were 
those  of  the  vulpine  phalanger,  or  common  Austra- 
lian opossum,  and  several  others  which  are  known 
to  be  common  about  the  immediate  neighbourhood. 
It  is  to  be  remarked,  however,  that  the  bones 


HOW    EMBEDDED.  341 

common  are  those  of  animals  which  burrow  under- 
ground, and  liable,  from  that  cause,  to  be  drowned 
by  any  sudden  advent  of  water ;  also,  the  bones  do 
not  seem  to  be  entirely  deprived  of  gelatine,  but  they 
have  the  appearance  of  great  antiquity.  They  are 
generally  covered  with  a  crust  of  lime,  which 
easily  scales  off  in  thin  plates,  leaving  the  bone 
clean  and  perfect. 

I  will  not  now  enter  into  a  description  of  the 
other  bones ;  it  would  take  ages  to  classify  them 
all,  even  were  the  difficulty  less  than  it  is,  so  I 
must  content  myself  with  stating  that  I  could  find 
no  remains  of  a  large  animal,  and  it  must  have 
taken  millions  of  individuals  to  raise  the  deposit 
that  is  formed.  I  may  add,  however,  that  the  types 
of  all  the  existing  animals  would  not  be  much 
smaller.  The  kangaroo  bones  found  in  the  Welling- 
ton Valley  caves  are  at  least  three  times  the  size  of 
any  now  living;  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the 
opossum.  Those  caves  are^  I  understand,  in  a  much 
older  deposit,  and  probably  the  same  may  be  said 
of  the  bones,  though,  from  what  I  shall  say  in  the 
next  chapter,  the  large  kangaroo  may  be  still  exist- 
ing. Now,  as  to  the  way  these  bones  came  to  be  so 
congregated:  had  the  mouse-bones  been  smaller, 
and  near  some  Phcsnician  colony,  we  might  suppose 
them  to  be  relics  of  Pagan  religious  worship,  for 
these  people  used  to  sacrifice  mice  in  caverns,  and 
make  a  tumulus  of  the  bones.  Such  a ^ theory 
would  hardly  do  here.  We  must  premise,  first,  that 
the  animals  did  not  live  and  die  where  they  are 


342  HOW    EMBEDDED. 

found,  for  their  remains  are  not  associated  with 
what  we  must  expect,  had  they  lived  there,  neither 
are  their  bones  found  in  the  state  they  would  be 
in  under  such  circumstances.  Besides,  the  depth 
is  too  great,  and  the  place  too  extensive,  for  any 
animal  to  live  in  as  a  place  of  shelter. 

Some  geologists  are  of  opinion  that  most  caves 
were  formerly  in  the  position  of  an  underground 
current  or  river  (not  uncommon  in  limestone), 
which  would  carry  down  organic  remains;  but  I 
can  assert  almost  positively  that  there  is  no  visible 
place  for  either  the  egress  or  ingress  of  water  in 
these  caves,  unless  by  the  roof,  or  through  the  mean- 
dering thread-like  passages  at  the  end.  A  river 
in  the  sense  of  a  continued  running  stream  there 
could  not  be,  or  even  a  creek,  so  that  the  theory 
will  not  meet  the  present  case,  so  far  as  I  have  as 
yet  seen. 

Some,  again,  suppose  the  animals  to  have  fallen 
from  above;  but  though  this  would  account  for 
bones  near  the  holes,  it  would  not  give  a  reason  for  a 
deep  deposit  extending  the  whole  length  of  the  pas- 
sage. Some  others  agree  that  the  bones  could  only 
have  collected  during  an  extensive  inundation, 
which  would  cause  them  to  accumulate,  either  by 
driving  large  numbers  of  animals  into  the  caverns, 
or  by  the  restless  agitation  of  the  waters  above. 

With  this  latter  theory  I  aeree.  as  the  most  con- 

••>>«.. 
sistent  with  observed  facts.  I  have  remarked  before, 

that  the  caverns  are  on  rising  ground  (another  ar- 
gument against  a  river).     Now,  suppose  an  inun- 


RESULT    OF    INUNDATIONS.  343 

dation  gradually  covering  the  plains  below,  all 
living  creatures  (that  were  not  drowned  in  the 
plains,  which  would  not,  as  we  have  seen,  be  the 
largest  number,)  would  take  refuge  on  the  hill. 
Let  the  waters  still  rise  until  a  multitude  of  all  the 
things  that  creep  the  earth  are  huddled  on  to  the 
hillocks  all  around.  Place  a  cave  on  the  top ;  how 
rapidly  would  they  take  refuge  therein,  and  as  the 
swollen  waters  poured  slowly  into  their  last  re- 
source, what  multitudes  would  leave  their  skeletons 
to  mark  the  work  of  destruction,  besides  the  floating 
bodies  of  those  drowned  by  the  first  rush  of  the 
waters  below,  that  would  be  carried  down  by  the 
current  or  swept  in  by  the  wayward  action  of  the 
fluid.  This  theory  appears  to  me  to  be  the  most 
acceptable;  and  let  us  look,  for  one  instant,  at  the 
curious  corroboration  afforded  by  the  nature  of  the 
country  around. 

The  caves,  as  I  have  said,  are  on  the  summit  of 
a  small  hill,  which  is  part  of  a  low  range  running 
north  and  south.  It  is  separated  from  another 
range  on  the  west  by  a  narrow  flat,  scarcely  a  quar- 
ter of  a  mile  wide.  This  flat  is  singularly  level,  and 
where  there  are  any  eminences  they  have  a  rounded 
outline,  making  them  look  like  islands  on  the  flat. 
To  the  north  this  flat  is  closed,  at  about  six  miles 
from  the  caves,  by  a  junction  of  the  ranges.  To 
the  south,  at  about  four  miles,  it  opens  out  into  a 
much  wider  flat,  and  then  is  closed  by  a  junction  of 
the  ranges  again,  with  the  exception  of  a  small 
opening,  through  which  a  rivulet  or  creek  passes. 


344  ANCIENT    KATAVOTHKA. 

It  will  therefore  be  seen  that,  were  it  not  for  this 
opening,  the  whole  flat  would  be  a  valley  perfectly 
enclosed,  and  allowing  no  exit  for  the  water,  which 
would  drain  down  from  the  surrounding  hills. 
This  would  give  rise  to  an  inland  lake,  whose  only 
drainage  would  be  when  the  water  was  high  enough 
to  pour  into  the  caves.  In  fact,  the  caves  would 
be  neither  more  nor  less  than  the  katavothra,  or 
swallow-holes,  of  the  enclosed  valleys  of  the  Morea, 
spoken  of  in  the  last  chapter.  Now,  there  is  very 
good  evidence  that  the  creek  which  at  present 
drains  the  flat  has  only  been  recently  formed. 
When  overflowing  in  winter,  it  enters  very  deeply 
into  the  banks,  so  that,  in  a  few  years,  it  will  be 
much  wider  than  it  is  now.  As  its  greatest  width 
is  very  small,  there  can  be  no  question  that  its 
origin  is  very  recent.  Probably,  as  the  range  is 
rather  lower  here  than  elsewhere,  its  beginning 
was  an  overflow,  when  the  inland  valley  was  rather 
more  full  than  usual.  The  flat  itself,  even  if  the 
existence  of  the  caves  were  not  known,  would  be 
ascribed  to  a  lake,  because  the  level  appearance  of 
the  bottom  and  the  nature  of  the  sides  are  precisely 
similar  to  the  Swede's  Flat,  already  alluded  to. 
However  much  the  aspect  of  the  country  has 
altered  since  the  occurrence  of  the  water  upon 
this  lake,  the  appearance  has  not  changed  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  leave  the  least  doubt  about  the 
origin  of  the  caves,  when  the  ground  is  inspected. 

With  regard  to  the  nature  of  these  inundations, 
I  do  not  think  the  country  has  been  more  liable 


ANCIENT   KATAVOTHRA.  345 

to  heavy  rains  than  it  is  at  present.  Certainly 
a  flood  of  water  covering  a  flat,  and  converting 
it  into  a  lake,  would  be  an  astonishing  as  well  as 
a  pleasing  sight  to  the  settlers  here;  but,  if 
drainage  were  imperfect,  the  flat  would  be  without 
the  creek.  I  am  sure  one  of  our  ordinary  winters 
would  produce  all  the  results  that  are  here  evident, 
leaving  the  country  around  as  little  marked  with 
ravages  of  excessive  rain  as  it  is  at  present, — and 
that  is  saying  a  great  deal.  I  was  once  of  opinion 
that  there  were  here  signs  of  an  extraordinary 
inundation,  but  a  more  careful  inspection  has  quite 
dissipated  this  notion.  Floods  there  have  been, 
and  probably  seasons  of  more  violent  rains  than 
commonly  seen  at  present,  and  perhaps  of  such 
violence  as  to  be  unexpected  again,  without  some 
great  change  in  our  at  present  sleeping  volcanoes. 

It  is  singular  that  two  phenomena  should  be 
accompanied  with  such  similar  results  in  countries 
so  far  apart  as  Australia  and  the  Morea,  yet  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  our  caves  and  their  valleys, 
and  our  swallow-holes  and  katavothra,  are  in  all 
respects  identical. 

The  entrance  to  the  caves  at  the  Mosquito  Plains 
is  from  above,  and  the  shape  of  the  descent  into 
them,  and  the  walls  on  each  side,  is  exactly  that  of  a 
watercourse.  At  the  first  descent,  the  stones  have 
fallen  down  into  a  kind  of  slope  directed  towards 
the  right  side  of  the  cave,  which  has  a  deep  inden- 
tation, in  consequence,  just  at  the  distance  that  the 
water  would  impinge  upon  it.  Again,  this  hollow 


346  BLANCHE    CAVES 

has  a  projection  on  the  farther  side,  which  has 
thrown  the  stream  to  the  other  side  of  the  cave, 
where  there  is  another  indentation.  From  this 
the  water  has  evidently  been  thrown  off  on  to  the 
big  stalactite  before  described,  at  the  foot  of  which 
all  the  bones  have  been  deposited.  It  is  easy  to 
see  that  this  stalactite  is  the  only  obstruction  the 
water  would  meet  in  its  course,  and  the  occurrence 
of  bones  in  any  quantity  here,  and  here  only,  is 
thus  explained.  I  think  that  there  is  evidence  here 
also  to  prove  that  these  inundations  took  place  many 
times,  and  that  long  periods  of  rest  intervened, 
during  which  no  water  flowed  at  all.  In  the  first 
place,  the  caves  must  have  existed  some  time  before 
stalactites  were  formed ;  and,  secondly,  those  stalac- 
tites which  reach  from  the  roof  to  the  ground  would 
have  been  washed  away,  had  the  water  been  con- 
tinually flowing. 

Therefore,  there  must  have  been,  first,  the  floods 
which  scooped  out  the  caves;  and,  secondly,  the 
floods  which  piled  up  the  bones  at  the  foot  of 
the  stalactites  formed  during  a  period  of  rest. 

For  the  first,  a  great  many  floods  of  water  must 
have  flowed  to  hollow  out  so  large  a  series  of 
caverns ;  probably  every  year,  or  nearly  every  year, 
during  the  summers  or  dry  seasons  of  which  the 
stalactites  were  forming.  For  the  second,  there 
must  have  been  either  one  violent  inundation, 
so  as  to  drown  all  the  animals  in  one  great  cata- 
strophe (and  of  this  there  is  no  evidence),  or  there 


HOLLOWED   BY   WATER.  347 

must  have  been  successive  quantities  brought  down 
by  the  annual  flow  in  every  winter  season. 

The  eruption  of  Mounts  Gambierand  Shanck,  and 
the  volcanoes  to  the  southward,  may  have  caused 
very  heavy  torrents  of  rain  and  extraordinary 
floods,  as  these  events  generally  do.  Indeed,  this 
must  have  been  the  cause  of  whatever  other  signs 
we  see  of  floods  here. 

It  may  be  remarked,  that  there  must  have  been 
some  sorts  of  holes  or  cracks  in  the  limestone  for 
the  water  to  have  flowed  down  in  the  first  instance. 
But  this  is  not  necessary,  for  the  mere  infiltration 
of  water  through  the  soft  and  porous  limestone, 
where  it  was  exposed,  would  soon  form  a  passage. 
But  I  think  we  may  reasonably  conjecture  that  the 
strata  underground  are  full  of  cracks,  apertures, 
and  fissures.  It  has  already  been  frequently  stated, 
that  the  whole  of  the  district  from  Mount  Gambier 
to  the  Tatiara  is  composed  of  light  limestone, 
formed  of  porous  strata,  which,  though  much  dis- 
integrated at  deposition,  would,  in  the  course  of 
time,  settle  down  by  its  own  weight,  or  become  disin- 
tegrated by  filtration.  As  it  was  all  under  the  sea 
at  one  time,  and  as  it  was  slowly  raised  from  thence, 
each  portion  would  be  successively  covered  by 
shallow  water  exposed  to  the  action  of  coast  waves. 
This  would  break  the  corals  and  shells  of  the  up- 
permost strata  into  fragments  at  first,  and  after- 
wards to  an  impalpable  paste,  which  would  harden 
into  a  very  compact  rock  when  dry,  suffering 


348  HOW    THE    LIMESTONE    DISSOLVED. 

entirely  from  the  loose  underlying  shelly  deposit. 
In  the  course  of  time,  when  the  rock  was  quite 
raised  from  the  sea,  the  most  loose  of  the  shelly 
parts  would  crack  and  loosen  into  fissures,  leaving 
a  space  under  the  hard,  concreted  upper  strata, 
thus  giving  rise  to  caves.  In  the  district  are  many 
caves  of  which  the  hard  roof  never  falls  in  to 
reveal  their  extent,  and  which  are  only  known  to 
exist  by  the  hollow  sound  percussion  of  the  surface 
gives,  or  by  the  boring  of  a  well  accidentally  dis- 
playing them.  In  confirmation  of  these  views  as 
to  their  origin,  I  may  here  state  what  has  been  for- 
merly mentioned,  that,  wherever  the  formation 
occurs,  there  are  always  about  three  feet  of  hard 
schisty  limestone  covering  it.  Secondly,  caves  are 
very  common  in  the  district;  and,  finally,  I  have 
seen  the  same  thing  in  operation  at  Guichen  Bay, 
where  the  loose  shelly  rock  has  been  hardened  by 
the  mere  action  of  the  waves  into  a  thick  deposit 
above  the  proper  formation,  which  remains  loose. 

Now  as  to  stalactites.  It  was  formerly  stated, 
by  many  eminent  chemists,  that  these  could  not 
easily  be  accounted  for,  as  water  would  not  dissolve 
carbonate  of  lime,  or  the  ordinary  limestone.  It 
has,  however,  been  since  determined  satisfactorily, 
that  water  will  hold  a  certain  quantity  of  carbonic 
acid  in  solution,  and  will  then  dissolve  a  certain 
quantity  of  lime.  Water  falling  on  grassy  ground 
derives  a  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  from  plants,  and 
this,  filtering  through  and  evaporating,  would  leave 
the  lime  it  had  dissolved  on  the  inner  side  as  a  little 


CONCLUSION.  349 

nodule,  gradually  enlarging  by  increasing  deposition. 
Wherever  the  quantity  of  lime  was  small  and  pure, 
and  the  evaporation  slow,  crystallisation  would  take 
place,  which  is  the  case  in  nearly  all  the  stalactites 
in  these  caves.  I  must  mention  that,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  ridge  on  which  the  caves  are,  there  has 
been  little  or  no  upheaval,  and  no  higher  ground 
from  which  any  stream  might  be  derived  for  a  long 
distance.  The  country  around  is  singularly  level 
and  flat,  destitute  of  anything  like  a  large  creek, 
or  even  of  surface-water  in  a  dry  season.  Devoid  of 
rivers  and  hills,  the  aspect  is  far  from  pleasant  for 
those  whose  tastes  are  with  the  poet,  who  said : — 

'  Kura  mihi  et  rigui  placeant  in  vallibus  amnes.'  VIBG. 

Before  concluding  this  description  of  the  caves, 
there  is  one  point  which  I  am  anxious  to  dwell 
upon.  There  was  a  time  when  I  very  tenaciously 
held  an  opinion,  at  one  time  promulgated  by  the 
late  lamented  Dr.  Buckland,  in  his  '  Reliquia?  Dilu- 
vianoe,'  to  the  effect  that  the  bones  in  caves  were 
relics  of  the  Deluge.  That  opinion  I  believe  to  be 
quite  untenable.  Not  only  did  different  causes 
operate  in  producing  similar  phenomena,  but  also 
there  is  overwhelming  evidence  that  they  were 
formed  at  different  times.  Some,  as  we  have  seen, 
were  dens  of  wild  animals ;  others,  places  of  human 
abode  or  sepulture;  others,  again,  mere  drains; 
while  s'ome  can  boast  that  they  entomb  animals 
which  have  long  ceased  to  exist — 'the  giants  of 
those  days.'  This  is  by  no  means  a  general  rule. 


350  CONCLUSION. 

The  fact  found  to  prevail  so  extensively,  and  so 
confidently  appealed  to,  namely,  that  all  bore  marks 
of  the  action  of  water,  is  a  mere  consequence  of  the 
course  of  their  existence; — if  water  did  not  fre- 
quently run  in  great  quantities  where  they  are 
found,  they  never  would  have  been  there  at  all. 
Eevelation  is,  however,  much  better  without  such 
equivocal  support  as  misinterpreted  facts.  It  can 
well  spare  this  testimony,  since  Science  has  laid 
nearly  all  her  latest  and  most  glorious  laurels  at 
its  feet.  What  we  should  never  have  looked  for, 
namely,  the  marks  of  an  inundation  which  only 
lasted  a  year  many  thousand  years  ago,  has  not 
been  found.  But  its  very  absence  might  be  cited 
as  a  corroborative  fact.  Let  us,  however,  at  least 
congratulate  ourselves  that  Geology  displays  as 
much  the  wonders  of  the  Creator  as  its  sister 
sciences,  Chemistry,  Mineralogy,  or  Botany,  and 
they  bewilder  us  with  visions  of  God's  immensity. 
These  silent  caves,  never  for  ages  past  enlivened 
by  the  busy  hum  of  life,  scarcely  echoing  to  the 
footsteps  which  explore  their  hidden  beauties,  have 
within  themselves  a  wondrous  record  of  this  planet's 
changes. 

Geologists  have  been  accused  of  requiring  too 
much  time  for  the  operation  of  the  mutations  they 
have  helped  to  disclose ;  but  look  upon  this  architec- 
ture— this  glorious  tracery  of  Nature — remember- 
ing that  it  has  been  formed  atom  by  atom,  and 
line  by  line ;  consider  how  long  it  must  have  taken 
a  mere  drop  of  water  to  take  down  from  above  the 


CONCLUSION.  351 

marvellous  columns  which  adorn  this  palace  of 
stone,  and  ask,  Will  years,  even  counted  by  hun- 
dreds, cover  the  period  it  includes? 

Man,  in  his  busy  speculations  among  the  stars, 
has  told  of  wondrous  things.  He  has  pointed  out 
orbs  whose  distance  from  us  he  has  discovered,  but 
his  numbers  have  an  unmeaning  sound,  which  his 
own  mind  cannot  reach.  He  has  traced  dim  clouds 
to  universes  whose  existence  may  have  finished 
since  the  radiance  which  now  shines  upon  him 
proceeded  from  them.  All  his  discoveries  enlarge 
our  small  ideas  of  the  immensity  of  Omnipotence. 
And  does  not  Geology  do  the  same?  Beneath  the 
soil,  carpeted  by  various  flowers  which  herald 
forth  the  beauty  of  a  world  to  come,  are  secrets 
which  are  only  known  to  man  in  part. 

But  these  revelations,  small  as  they  are,  stretch 
far  beyond  his  comprehension.  He  learns  that  the 
dust  he  treads  upon  was  once  alive,  that  the  rock 
on  which  he  takes  his  stand  has  lived  and  died — 
has  been  a  thing  of  life,  and  is  now  a  stone :  and 
this  is  a  time  which  reaches  so  far  back  as  only  to 
be  understood  by  Him  who  was  from  eternity. 
He  sees  that  a  cavity  (but  an  atom  in  the  world) 
has,  by  the  small  dropping  of  water,  created  itself 
into  a  palace,  and  then  has  it  stood  a  silent  witness 
to  the  earth's  history,  has  become  a  cemetery  of  a 
creation  swept  away  in  one  of  its  changes.  But 
this  is  not  all,  nor  even  a  part.  It  requires  now  a 
laborious  man  to  learn  all  which,  little  by  little, 
has  been  revealed  to  those  who  have  looked  into 


352  CONCLUSION, 

the  past  history  of  creation ;  and  man,  pausing  in 
his  vain  endeavour  to  stretch  his  mind  to  the 
capacity  of  that  which  has  no  bounds,  is  obliged 
to  rest  himself  from  the  thought  of  the  Infinite, 
and  to  confess  that,  whether  he  searches  in  earth, 
or  sky,  or  sea,  he  is  everywhere  met  by  the  visions 
of  the  Illimitable, 


353 


CHAPTER   XIII. 

CAVES. 

CAVES. MOUNT  BURR  CAVES.  —  VANSITTART'S  CAVE. MIT- 

CHELL'S    CAVE. — THE    DROP-DROP.  —  BONES    OF    A    LARGE 

KANGAROO. ELLIS'S    CAVE.  - —  UNDERGROUND    DRAINAGE. 

CAVES  AT  LIMESTONE  RIDGE. OTHER  CAVES. CONCLUSION. 

I  COME  now  to  describe  the  other  caves  in  the 
district  of  which  I  have  undertaken  to  write. 
As  already  repeatedly  remarked,  where  the  whole 
district  is  one  formation,  and  that  a  loose  lime- 
stone, these  may  be  expected  to  be  numerous 
enough,  and  so,  in  fact,  they  are^ 

The  first  intended  to  be  described  are  those  of 
Mount  Burr.  This  hill,  as  my  readers  are  aware, 
is  an  immense  upheaval  of  limestone  by  trap  rock> 
causing  a  fault  similar  to  that  of  Leake's  Bluff, 
with  this  difference  only,  that  trap  rock  is  visible 
on  the  latter  and  not  on  the  former.  It  is  a  hill 
covered  on  all  sides  with  the  outcroppings  of  the 
limestone,  and,  towards  its  base,  has  several  little 
escarpments.  Some  of  them  have  troughs,  or 
small  valleys,  descending  to  their  base  from  the 
higher  land  beyond  them,  and  then  any  drainage 
which  comes  down  either  lies  as  a  pond  at  the  foot 
of  the  rock,  or  drains  underneath  it. 

A  A 


354  MOUNT   BURR   CAVE. 

One  of  these  places  where  the  water  drains  has 
given  rise  to  a  fine  series  of  caves.  No  one  would 
suspect,  from  the  outside,  that  there  was  so  exten- 
sive a  cavity  within.  The  limestone  appears  per- 
forated and  honeycombed,  of  from  four  or  five  feet 
above  the  ground,  but  there  is  only  one  very  small 
aperture,  through  which  a  man  can  barely  creep. 
It  was  only  lately  that  the  caves  were  discovered 
by  a  person  determined  to  see  which  way  the  water 
drained.  On  creeping  through  the  orifice,  a  very 
large  chamber  is  discovered,  with  the  roof  not 
more  than  sixteen,  or,  in  places,  at  most  twenty, 
feet  from  the  ground,  but  very  irregular.  There 
are  few  or  no  stalactites,  but  the  water  drops 
through  in  quantities  quite  large  enough  to  make 
them  in  a  very  short  time,  and,  therefore,  we  may 
conclude  that  the  caves  have  not  been  very  long  in 
existence. 

There  are  three  or  four  wide  passages  off  this 
chamber,  leading  to  as  many  subterranean  ones.  As 
they  traverse  underneath,  there  are  several  places 
where  the  light  comes  in  from  above,  through  aper- 
tures in  the  limestone.  These  were  noticed  long 
before  their  connection  with  the  caves  were  known, 
and  were  thought  to  be  natural  wells.  The  whole 
extent  of  the  caves  has  not  been  ascertained,  but 
they  have  been  followed  for  an  immense  distance, 
without  diminishing  in  width  or  in  height.  They 
are  not,  in  other  respects,  very  remarkable  or 
beautiful,  as  they  contain  but  few  stalactites,  and, 
as  far  as  they  are  yet  known,  no  other  natural 
curiosities.  Tt  is  true  that  their  aspect  is  both 


MOUNT   BUKE   CAVE.  355 

grotesque  and  singular,  having  a  very  wild  ap- 
pearance by  the  light  of  the  torches  necessary  to 
explore  them. 

Where  the  roof  has  support,  they  have  the  ap- 
pearance of  groined  arches ;  and  the  fanciful  man- 
ner in  which  the  water  has  worn  the  faces  of  the 
stone  is  like  rough  tracery.  What  has  a  beautiful 
appearance,  and  is,  in  fact,  a  singular  phenomenon, 
is  a  series  of  most  delicate  wreaths,  which  hang 
down  from  the  ceiling  like  clusters  of  long  silken 
hair.  These  are  roots  of  trees,  which  grow  in  the 
limestone  above,  and  descend  through  cracks  and 
crevices  until  they  reach  the  floor  of  the  cavern 
beneath.  Some  few  are  as  thick  as  a  man's  finger, 
and  these,  not  only  descend  from  above,  but  grow 
into  the  floor  beneath,  looking  like  the  branches  of 
the  banyan  tree  or  iron  pillars,  planted  to  support 
the  roof.  The  majority,  however,  are  thin  and 
silky,  and  look  almost  like  gossamer.  When  one 
takes  in  hand  what  appears  to  be  a  thick  bunch,  it 
proves  as  light  as  a  feather,  composed  of  thin  shreds, 
which  throw  out  tubers  every  now  and  then,  which 
interlace  and  form  a  compact  network.  There  are 
no  cracks  visible  where  they  are  thickest,  and  yet, 
that  such  thin  filaments  could  penetrate  the  lime- 
stone unless  there  were  apertures,  does  not  appear 
possible.  This  is  the  only  cave  where  I  observed  any- 
thing of  the  kind,  even  though  the  limestone  ceiling 
might  be  thinner,  with  trees  on  the  top.  All  the 
roots  were  brown  in  colour,  possessing  a  thin,  light 
cortical  substance,  and  being  white  inside.  They 

A  A  2 


356  MOUNT   BURE   CAVE. 

were  wet,  and  this  is  probably  the  principal  source 
of  moist  nourishment  to  the  tree,  the  soil  above 
being  exceedingly  dry.  Some  of  the  bunches  of 
fibre  were  at  least  ten  feet  long. 

Does  it  not  seem  wonderful  how  far  the  other 
ingredients  necessary  for  plant  life  must  have  been 
carried  to  meet  the  sole  want  of  water,  and  how 
almost  like  an  instinct  it  seems  that  a  tree  should 
send  by  chance  a  rootlet  into  the  cave,  and,  learning 
that  water  could  be  had,  kept  on  adding  and  in- 
creasing the  growth  until  there  was  a  large  surface 
exposed  to  take  advantage  of  the  favourable  posi- 
tion? But  perhaps  it  would  be  more  fair  to  say, 
that,  as  the  moisture  was  favourable  to  growth,  it 
was  where  the  plant  could  procure  it  that  growth 
would  be  first  and  best  promoted. 

Another  peculiarity  in  this  cave  which  has  not 
been  met  elsewhere  in  this  district  is,  that  it  is  full 
of  mud,  about  eight  inches  deep.  This  renders  the 
exploration  of  the  cave  a  matter  of  great  difficulty, 
besides  being  disagreeable  in  the  extreme.  There 
are  pools  of  water  here  and  there,  but  they  are,  for 
the  most  part,  surrounded  and  bottomed  with  finely- 
levigated  mud,  which  covers  the  limestone  floor. 
This  moisture  seems  to  have  arisen  from  a  swamp, 
which,  it  would  appear,  drains  into  the  cave  when 
the  rains  are  very  heavy.  I  never  saw  mud  in 
any  other  cave,  and  the  exception,  in  this  case,  is 
in  consequence  of  the  extreme  lowness  of  the  aper- 
ture, whereas,  in  all  other  caves,  the  opening  is  at 
a  height  where  only  clear  water  could  reach. 

At  the  mouth  of  the  cave  there  is  a  breccia  of 


VANSITT ART'S    CAVE.  357 

bones,  which  have  been  brought  down  by  a  current 
of  water  and  deposited  at  the  entrance  until  ce- 
mented into  the  limestone.  It  was  impossible  to 
detach  any  of  these  bones  without  almost  com- 
pletely destroying  them.  They  appeared  large 
bones,  very  like  those  of  a  kangaroo,  though  only 
the  ends  of  them  were  visible.  There  were  no 
other  bones  of  any  kind  in  or  near  the  cave,  with 
the  exception  of  a  few  bones  of  the  vulpine  pha- 
langer,  or  opossum  of  the  colonists,  which  were 
strewed  upon  the  mud  ;  but  this  latter  was  of  too 
great  thickness  to  enable  one  to  explore  with 
facility  the  limestone  underneath.* 

The  next  cavern  worthy  of  notice  is  that  which 
here  goes  by  the  name  of  Vansittart's  Cave.  It  is 
a  round  opening  in  the  ground  close  to  Mount 
Gambier,  about  forty  feet  across,  with  a  very  long 
sloping  precipitous  path  leading  to  the  bottom, 
covered  over  with  ferns  and  rank  vegetation.  The 
cave  is  not,  properly  speaking,  entered  until  the 
pit  is  descended  to  a  depth  of  some  seventy  feet  ; 
then  there  is  a  semicircular  opening  or  arch,  which 
goes  slanting  under  the  limestone  for  forty  feet 
more,  where  water  is  reached.  At  the  edge  of  the 
water  there  is  scarcely  light  enough  to  perceive 
anything,  especially  the  water,  which  is  so  wonder- 
fully clear  that  its  interposition  between  the 
observer  and  the  floor  is  not  for  a  long  time  per- 

*  From  among  these  bones  I  have  since  obtained  specimens  of  bones 
of  the  large  animals  described  in  the  Appendix.  They  were  mixed 
with  those  of  existing  species,  and  one  bone  was  evidently  the  spurious 
molar  of  the  Macropus  Titan  (Owen),  an  extinct  kangaroo  of  gigantic 
dimensions,  the  skull  being  larger  than  that  of  an  ox. 


358  VANSITTAKT'S  CAVE. 

ceptible,  so  that  one  runs  imminent  danger  of 
walking  into  it  without  knowing  whence  the  mois- 
ture proceeds.  Up  to  the  water's  edge  the  width 
of  the  cave  is  about  twenty  feet,  but  there  it  sud- 
denly narrows  to  a  mere  low  passage,  which  is  seen 
by  torch-light  to  go  a  great  distance  farther.  The 
water  prevents  its  complete  exploration.  This 
latter  deepens  rapidly  from  the  side,  which,  at  the 
distance  of  about  twelve  feet,  is  five-and-twenty 
feet  deep,  and  yet,  even  here,  such  is  the  clear- 
ness of  the  water,  that  every  object  on  the  bottom 
is  clearly  seen.  A  gentleman  who  visited  the 
cave  a  short  time  since  was  very  anxious  to  as- 
certain what  might  be  the  length  of  the  aperture, 
but,  after  swimming  a  short  distance,  the  intense 
cold  compelled  him  to  return,  without  much  more 
information  than  he  could  have  gained  from  the 
side.  I  imagine  the  water  to  belong  to  the  general 
water-level  of  the  whole  district,  as  the  wells  are 
all  about  ninety  feet  deep  here.  At  one  time,  how- 
ever, it  must  have  been  lower  for  these  passages 
to  be  hollowed  out,  and  very  likely  the  cave  was 
occasioned  by  a  drainage  from  the  small  hills  at 
some  little  distance  from  the  mouth  of  the  cave. 

There  were  no  bones  here  at  all  perceptible. 
The  entrance  is  surrounded  with  an  abundance  of 
the  small  fern,  Asplenium  laxum,  an  acrogen  which 
is  not  found  anywhere  in  the  neighbourhood,  though 
the  Pteris  esculenta  and  Adiantum  assimile  abound 
here.  There  is  also  a  cave  at  no  great  distance, 
and  which  is  so  small  as  to  demand  no  further 
notice,  in  which  the  fern-tree  grows.  There  is  no 


MITCHELL'S  CAVE.  359 

other  of  the  kind  (Cibotium  JBillardieri)  in  the 
neighbourhood,  and  yet  one  of  the  plants  reaches 
from  the  foot  of  the  cave  to  the  summit,  and  seems 
to  reach  its  mouth. 

We  pass  on  now  to  Mitchell's  Cave,  close  to  the 
one  we  have  just  been  describing.  It  is  a  hole  very 
much  like  the  opening  to  the  preceding,  except 
that  the  bottom  is  reached  by  a  winding  path,  and 
then  opens  into  a  chamber  at  right  angles  to  the 
diameter  of  the  entrance.  It  has  a  pool  of  water 
shelving  under  the  rock,  which  is  so  deep  as  to  give 
it,  clear  as  it  is,  a  deep  sea-blue  tint.  There  is  no 
mark  of  any  passage  continuous  with  the  cavern, 
but  the  roof,  where  a  section  of  it  is  seen,  is 
much  honey-combed,  and  must  have  contained 
many  passages  for  water.  Evidently  these  were  all 
covered  over  at  one  time,  and  the  present  cavern 
was  only  exposed,  within  a  comparatively  recent 
period,  by  the  falling  in  of  the  roof.  There  are 
also  a  few  sand-pipes  visible  in  the  sections  exposed, 
of  a  width  varying  from  two  feet  to  a  few  inches. 
None  of  these  descend  through  the  strata  into  the 
cave,  and  they  are  all  filled  with  the  red  ochreous 
sand  which  here  results  from  the  decomposition 
of  the  limestone.  This  cave  is  remarkable  as  having 
been  one  of  the  sole  reservoirs  of  water  for  the  early 
settlers  before  any  wells  were  sunk  ;  now,  however, 
it  is  little  used  for  the  purpose,  and  is  enclosed  as 
a  Government  reserve.  The  water  is  full  of  a 
cypris  and  cyclops,  the  shells  of  which  seem  to 
strew  the  bottom.  There  is  also  much  conferva,  a 
shrimp-like  brachiopod,  and  a  minute  paludina, 


360  THE   DROP-DROP. 

which  seem  to  blacken  the  water,  and  they  cover 
a  piece  of  wood  very  soon  after  its  immersion. 

At  about  four  miles  from  this  place  there  is 
another  remarkable  cavern,  called  the  Drop-Drop, 
from  the  circumstance  of  water  dripping  from 
above  into  it.  It  thus  formed,  at  one  time,  a  con- 
stant supply  of  water  to  those  who  lived  in  its 
vicinity.  The  place  is  not  remarkable,  except  for 
being  long  and  narrow,  and  going  a  very  great 
depth  under  ground.  In  the  neighbourhood  there 
are  a  very  large  number  of  this  sort  of  caves,  very 
richly  supplied  with  stalactite.  They  are  being 
dug  into  every  day,  as  wells  are  being  sunk  and 
the  ground  tilled.  Indeed,  the  resonance  of  all  the 
hills  in  the  locality  shows  the  ground  to  be  com- 
pletely undermined.  On  one  occasion,  a  dray  and 
bullocks  fell  bodily  into  a  cavity  of  this  description, 
their  great  weight  having  broken  through  the  roof. 

It  was  in  one  of  these  cavities  that  a  bone  breccia 
was  found,  where,  under  a  small  aperture,  about 
two  feet  wide,  was  a  mass  of  translucent  limestone, 
in  which  bones  were  embedded.  These  must  have 
fallen  in  from  above,  as  there  was  no  drainage  to 
the  mouth  of  the  cave,  which  was,  besides,  not 
ramified,  but  a  chamber  about  thirty  feet  deep  and 
fourteen  wide.  The  bones  were  all  of  a  species  of 
kangaroo  existing  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  were 
embedded  together  in  rather  an  indiscriminate  man- 
ner. The  specimens  I  saw  were  mostly  jaw-bones. 

On  removing  this  breccia,  one  of  much  older 
date  was  found  beneath.  From  this  I  procured 
one  remarkable  bone,  probably  belonging  to  a 


KANGAEOO   BONES. 


361 


species  of  kangaroo  called  the  Euro,  which  is  only 
found  400  miles  to  the  north  of  Adelaide,  or 
700  miles  from  where  it  was  found.  From  the 
engraving  it  is  seen  that,  while  the  animal  must 
have  had  a  much  more  massive  frame  than  the  ex- 


362  KANGAROO   BONES. 

isting  kangaroo  of  the  neighbourhood,  they  were 
shorter  and  heavier,  and  much  less  fitted  for  speed. 
In  fact,  before  I  knew  the  qualities  of  the  Euro,  I 
concluded  that  this  bone  was  the  femur  of  a  kan- 
garoo, evidently  a  much  larger  animal  than  that 
which  we  have  around  us  at  present,  but  not  pos- 
sessed of  such  running  or  jumping  powers.  The 
length  of  the  bone  showed  that  the  leverage  could 
not  be  great  ;  and  it  was  after  this  that  I  heard  of 
the  Euro  possessing  these  characters.  In  the  bone, 
the  depth  of  the  introchanteric  fossa  is  very  re- 
markable. The  animal  matter  was  entirely  absent, 
and  the  specimen  extremely  light  for  its  size. 

The  occurrence  of  this  bone  inclines  us  to  specu- 
late on  the  causes  of  the  banishment  of  the  animal 
from  this  quarter,  and  its  being  only  found  at  a 
much  warmer  locality.  It  is  rarely  to  be  met  with 
anywhere,  and  this  may  be  because,  from  its  low 
powers  of  running,  it  became  a  more  easy  prey  to 
the  aborigines,  or  wild  dogs,  while  its  large  size 
made  it  a  much  more  desirable  prey.  This,  per- 
haps, is  the  only  instance  where  the  bones  found  in 
caves,  apparently  larger  than  of  any  existing  species, 
have  been  found  to  have  representatives  still  exist- 
ing. Probably  the  bones  found  at  Wellington 
Valley,  spoken  of  by  Sir  Charles  Lyell  in  his 
'  Manual  of  Geology,'  may  have  been  those  of  the 
Euro.*  But  that  only  one  bone  of  an  animal  is 
found  which  possibly  was  very  common  in  former 
times  in  the  same  locality,  shows  how  very  few  of 
terrestrial  faunae  get  embedded  in  strata  and  leave 

*  See  Appendix. 


ELLIS'S   CAVE.  363 

records  of  their  existence,  and,  therefore,  how  very 
weak  is  negative  evidence  with  reference  to  the 
former  state  of  the  earth's  surface.  We  can  no 
more  infer  the  character  of  animal  life  from  the 
absence  of  certain  remains,  than  we  could  guess  all 
the  animals  of  an  island  from  a  few  species  brought 
home  by  a  naturalist  who  made  a  small  collection 
during  a  short  visit. 

Now  conies  the  account  of  another  cave,  which 
differs  most  materially  from  all  that  have  been 
previously  described.  Close  to  Mr.  Ellis's  station, 
within  about  five  miles  of  Mount  Gambier,  there  is 
a  whim  erected  over  a  small  hole  in  the  rocks. 
Underneath  this,  at  the  depth  of  about  seventy 
feet,  there  is  a  long  passage  or  cavern,  through 
which  a  deep  stream  of  water  flows.  It  has  been 
followed  in  a  boat,  without  the  passage  becoming 
more  narrow  or  the  water  more  shallow,  and  very 
likely  continues  till  near  the  coast,  where,  as  before 
mentioned,  there  are  several  natural  springs,  where 
large  quantities  of  water  boil  through  the  lime- 
stone rock.  In  spring  and  summer,  there  is  a  dis- 
tinct stream  or  ripple  visible  on  the  surface,  as 
seen  from  the  top  of  the  well.  Doubtless  this  is 
one  of  the  many  passages  through  which  the  sur- 
face-water drains  from  this  district.  It  had  long 
been  a  subject  of  speculation  how  the  water  drained 
from  the  southern  part  of  this  country.  About 
that  of  the  northern  part  there  was  but  little 
difficulty.  The  creek  which  drains  the  flat  near 
the  caves,  as  well  as  some  other  drainage,  goes  into 
a  large  swamp,  on  the  Mosquito  Plains,  known  as 


364  THE    DRAINAGE. 

the  Mosquito  Swamp.  This,  when  full,  drains  into 
the  Salt  Creek,  in  a  north-westerly  direction,  and 
this  creek  into  the  Coorong,  and  thence  into  the 
Murray.  But  accounting  for  the  southern  drainage 
is  not  so  easy,  and  the  only  way  of  explaining  for 
the  disappearance  of  the  excess  of  water  is  to  sup- 
pose that  it  drained  under  ground.  This  was  cor- 
roborated by  several  facts.  In  many  of  the  wells 
in  this  district  a  distinct  ripple  is  at  one  time  observ- 
able on  their  surface,  and  floating  objects  placed 
on  one  side  are  rapidly  borne  to  the  other.  I  have 
even  heard  persons  say,  who  resided  where  the 
depth  of  the  water-level  is  not  great  and  the  lime- 
stone rock  cropping  out,  that  they  could  distinctly 
hear  a  sound  underneath  them  like  the  rolling  of 
water.  There  is  a  swamp,  near  Mount  Graham,  at 
the  head  of  the  Eeedy  Creek,  whose  sides  are  sur- 
rounded, here  and  there,  with  out-cropping  lime- 
stone rock.  When  the  swamp  overflows,  the  water 
drains  under  these  rocks,  which  are  much  honey- 
combed at  these  places,  though  there  is  no  appear- 
ance of  caves.  It  can  be  heard  rumbling  away  at 
a  distance. 

This  cave,  then,  at  Mr.  Ellis's,  is  probably  one  of 
the  channels  of  drainage.  Doubtless  it  is  supplied 
by  many  small  streams  which  merge  to  this  point, 
and  its  continued  action  has  hollowed  out  the 
passage  where  it  runs.  Its  course  is  about  south- 
east, and  either  it  comes  to  the  surface  in  one  of  the 
numerous  fresh-water  springs  which  abound  on  the 
coast,  or  else  it  comes  up  under  the  sea,  like  the 
water  resulting  from  the  katavothra,  in  Greece. 


MUNBANNAR   CAVE.  365 

Very  likely,  in  the  course  of  time,  other  passages 
like  this  will  be  found,  and  some  of  those  empty 
galleries,  which  are  now  so  frequently  dug  into  at 
a  small  depth  from  the  surface,  are  beds  of  streams, 
which  the  upheaval  of  the  land  has  deprived  of  their 
office.  Should  this  upheaval  continue,  the  passage 
we  are  now  treating  of  will  eventually  become  dry. 

There  is  another  very  remarkable  cave,  about 
three  miles  from  Mount  Shanck.  It  is  full  of 
water,  and  soundings  made  from  the  side  with 
sixty  feet  of  line  found  no  bottom.  It  would  be 
interesting  to  know  the  nature  of  the  bottom,  as 
probably  an  approximate  guess  of  the  thickness  of 
the  limestone  strata  might  then  be  arrived  at,  for 
there  is  some  considerable  distance  from  the  en- 
trance of  the  cave  to  the  water's  edge. 

Next  in  interest  to  this  is  a  series  of  caves 
at  the  Limestone  Kidge  Station,  a  little  over  the 
boundary  near  the  Victorian  township  of  Mun- 
bannar.*  This  locality  is  full  of  caves,  most  of 
them  leading  into  one  another  by  tortuous  passages 
made  by  beautiful  stalactites .  The  description  of  one 
cave,  however,  is  so  very  like  another,  that  I  fear  I 
should  grow  tedious  were  I  to  enlarge  much  upon 
their  varieties.  It  will  be  sufficient,  therefore,  to 
say,  that  the  locality  possesses  about  twenty,  within 

*  This  is  the  native  name  of  the  place,  and,  like  most  native  names, 
is  rather  euphonious.  It  is  a  pity  that  so  few  have  been  preserved.  As 
a  sample  of  their  musical  sound,  we  might  cite  a  few  which  would  be 
infinitely  preferable  to  transplanted  British  names,  sucl*  as  Liverpool, 
Newcastle,  &c.,  which  will,  in  time,  produce  endless  geographical 
confusion.  Caramedulla,  Aldinga,  Yankallilla,  Lillimer,  Kaniver, 
Pareene,  &c.,  are  infinitely  preferable,  and  such  names  as  these  are  not 
the  best  specimens. 


366  CONCLUSION. 

a  short  distance  of  each  other.*  There  are  none 
deeper  than  about  twenty  feet,  none  very  wide, 
and  they  all  seem  to  be  connected  with  each  other 
by  winding  passages.  It  is  one  of  these  which 
contains  a  chamber  only  open  to  the  sky  by  a 
small  aperture,  and  this  nearly  perfectly  concealed. 
Underneath  is  a  heap  of  bones — a  melancholy 
monument  to  those  unfortunate  kangaroos  who, 
prior  to  leaping,  did  not  take  the  precaution  of 
looking.  The  chamber  around  is  also  covered  with 
bones,  as  mentioned  in  a  previous  chapter. 

There  are  also  many  other  caves,  which  arc 
hardly  worth  a  minute  description,  now  that  the 
leading  features  of  the  most  important  have  been 
described.  There  is,  for  instance,  a  cave  at  Mr. 
Meredith's  station  which  is  a  mere  vault,  with 
tumbled  boulders  on  the  floor,  and  many  narrow 
passages,  nicely  decorated  with  stalactite  ;  one  at 
Mr.  Johnstone's  station  (Mount  Muirhead),  which 
is  a  very  plain  cavity,  with  two  entrances  ;  one 
at  Mr.  Ellis's,  which  is  entered  by  a  very  rapid 
descent,  leading  into  a  lofty  vault.  There  are, 
besides,  a  great  many  more,  but  far  too  numerous 
to  particularise  here.  The  three  last  are  on  higher 
ground,  and  therefore  connected  with  sudden  flows 
of  water.  None  of  them  are  near  creeks,  but  pro- 
bably may  have  been  hollowed  out  by  the  floods 
which  followed  the  eruptions  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  district. 

*  One  is  such  a  famous  resort  for  bats,  that  it  is  called  the  Bat 
Cave  in  consequence.  They  frequently  extinguish  the  lights  of 
explorers,  and  in  their  screechings  and  fluttering  remind  one  of 
Ilumboldt's  Guacharos. 


367 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

CONCLUDING    REMARKS. 


MY  observations  on  this  district  are,  for  the 
present,  brought  to  a  close.  They  form  a 
sketch,  and  a  very  imperfect  one,  of  what  has  been 
observed  in  this  part  of  the  world,  which,  however 
remote,  does  not  seem  to  have  come  to  its  present 
state  of  things  by  a  very  different  process  from 
what  has  happened  elsewhere.  Much  will  remain 
to  be  done  by  future  observers,  either  by  making 
new  observations  and  collecting  new  facts,  or  by 
extending  the  application  of  those  already  observed. 
There  may  be  some  slight  utility  in  what  has  been 
sketched  in  the  preceding  pages.  Like  the  '  Natu- 
ral History  of  Selborne,'  it  has  been  the  occupation 
of  many  a  passing  hour  in  the.  Bush,  where  amuse- 
ments are  otherwise  few;  and,  though  it  may 
appear  to  go  unnecessarily  into  detail,  it  may,  like 
the  same  work,  be  made  the  groundwork  of  larger 
and  more  general  conclusions.  Everyone  has  it 
in  his  power  to  contribute,  in  some  degree,  to  the 
world's  stock  of  knowledge.  If  this  were  acted 
upon,  the  different  sciences  would  soon  assume 
other  aspects;  and  I  cannot  think  that  the  small 
details  which  are  food  to  a  speculative  mind  are 
ever  dry  to  those  who  seek  for  information. 


368  SUMMAEY   OF    CONCLUSIONS. 

The  conclusions  to  be  drawn  from  what  has 
been  stated  in  the  preceding  pages,  though  redu- 
cible to  small  compass  for  actual  results,  are  not 
uninteresting,  and  may  lead  to  something  more 
important.  They  may  be  described  as  follows: — 

I.  There  has  been  in  Australia  an  immense  area 
of  subsidence  during  the  Pleiocene  period,  at  a 
time  when  Rome,  parts  of  Italy,  Vienna,  and  parts 
of  Austria,  Piedmont,  and  Asia  Minor  were  under 
the  sea. 

II.  This  subsidence  was  accompanied  by  a  coral 
formation,  very  similar  to  the  subsiding  area   of 
the  Pacific  at  the  present  time,  and,  though  all  the 
appearances  are  those  of  a  reef  of  true  zoophytic 
corals,  the  predominant  fossil  is  a  massive  Celle- 
pora,  while  true  corals  are  rare. 

III.  This  gives  rise  to  the  suspicion  that  Bryo* 
zoa  may  build  reefs   and  atolls  as  well  as  true 
corals. 

IV.  That  the  subsidence  ceased,  and  probably 
about  that  time  volcanic  disturbance  commenced, 
and  gave  rise  to  submarine  craters. 

V.  That,  after  the   cooling  of  the   lava   from 
these  submarine  craters,  a  deposit  of  small  frag- 
ments of  shells  was  thrown  down  from  an  ocean 
current. 

VI.  That  this  became  hardened  into  stone,  and 
was  then  upheaved  from   the  sea,  during  which 
process  large  portions  of  it  became  washed  away. 

VII.  That  the  latter  part  of  the  upheaval  was 
separated  by  a  long  lapse  of  time  from  the  sub- 


SUMMARY   OF    CONCLUSIONS.  369 

sidence,  because  the  latter  strata  show  some  dif- 
ference in  their  fauna. 

VIII.  That  while  upheaval  was  going  on,  until 
very  recently,  extensive  volcanic  disturbance  took 
place,   giving  rise   to  craters  which  are   all  now 
extinct. 

IX.  That  the  upheaval  coralline  rock,  when  de- 
composed, has  given  rise  to  a  very  indifferent  sort 
of  soil,  of  a  sandy  character,  which  causes  large 
tracts  of  arid  useless  country  in  this  part  of  Aus- 
tralia. 

X.  That  the  same  rock,  being  of  a  loose  texture, 
easily  allowed  water  to  percolate  through,  forming 
caves  and  underground  passages,  besides  honey- 
combing the  ground  in  all  directions. 

XI.  That,  while  these  operations  proceeded,  the 
animal  life  was  of  a  slightly   different  character 
from   what   is   found   in  the   same  locality  now, 
though,  probably,  the  land  animals  were  not  speci- 
fically different  from  individuals  in  other  parts  of 
the  Australian  continent. 

These  numerous  changes  seem  to  have  taken 
place  without  any  very  vast  convulsion  of  nature, 
or  phenomena  different  from  what  happen  in  the 
world  now.  It  has  been  the  custom,  lately,  to  say 
this  of  all  the  operations  of  Geology.  No  one, 
however,  who  has  studied  the  question,  will  deny 
that  there  are  peculiar  characters  in  different  geo- 
logical epochs  which  indicate  something  very 
diverse  from  the  character  of  the  earth's  surface 

B  B 


370  SUMMARY    OF    CONCLUSIONS. 

now.  Thus,  there  is  the  age  of  the  Silurian  slates, 
enormous  masses  of  finely-levigated  mud,  derived 
from  whence  we  know  not,  and  very  sparingly 
supplied  with  animal  remains:  the  carboniferous 
era,  with  the  enormous  swamps  of  fern  vegetation ; 
the  Wealden,  with  its  gigantic  reptiles ;  the  chalk, 
with  its  corals  and  corallines.  And  so  we  may  say  of 
our  crag  deposits.  They  give  evidence  of  a  pecu- 
liar state  of  things,  and  seem  in  every  case  to  have 
been  followed  by  the  same  results.  Geology  is 
like  history — its  events  repeat  themselves,  but  not 
the  same  events,  and  each  period  has  a  character 
which  seems  to  have  affected  the  whole  earth  for 
the  time  being. 

But  even  these  conclusions  must  be  modified 
by  remembering  how  many  of  them  rest  on  nega- 
tive evidence.  The  very  circumstances  under 
which  certain  deposits  are  found  may,  in  securing 
their  own  preservation,  exclude  any  but  a  certain 
class  of  organic  remains.  Thus  the  coal  deposits 
do  not  warrant  us  in  concluding  that  there  were 
no  other  plants,  but  rather,  where  these  grew  in 
such  abundance,  the  growth  was  owing  to  circum- 
stances which  excluded  others.  Or  again,  the 
reptiles  which  are  found  in  the  Wealden  mud  (the 
estuary  of  a  former  river)  may  have  sought  food 
in  such  a  place,  and  thus  be  nearly  the  only  animal 
embedded.  But  with  every  limitation,  however, 
the  general  character  of  the  fauna  or  flora,  of  any 
period,  is  always  very  clearly  marked. 


SUMMARY    OF    CONCLUSIONS.  371 

All  these  things  show  that  Geology  has  some 
conclusions  as  certainly  established  as  to  enable 
her  to  avoid  the  errors  of  hasty  generalisation. 
As  a  science  which  requires  so  much  from  other 
branches  of  knowledge,  it  can  ill  afford  to  lose 
itself  in  mazy  speculations  while  so  much  remains 
to  be  done.  Little  by  little  the  edifice  is  building, 
and  probably  small  contributions,  such  as  these 
pages,  may  be  offered  without  presumption. 

It  may  seem  strange  that  so  much  food  for 
speculation  is  to  be  found  in  the  earth  beneath 
our  feet.  It  leads  to  much  knowledge.  Let 
us  not  be  presumptuous,  however.  How  small  it 
is  in  comparison  with  the  vast  amount  still  un- 
known, and  yet  within  reach! — how  small  by  the 
side  of  the  vast  sea  of  the  unknown  materials  for 
human  knowledge,  and  how  immeasurably  insigni- 
ficant compared  with  that  illimitable  knowledge 
which  all  eternity  will  not  enable  us  to  understand ! 
Well  may  I  conclude  with  the  beautiful  words  of 
an  eminent  philosopher : — 

'  Si  quid  profecerimus,  non  alia  sane  ratio  nobis 
viam  aperuit  quam  vera  et  legitima  spiritus  hu- 
mani  humiliatio.  Quamobrem.  .  .  adDeumPatrem, 
Deum  Filium,  Deum  Spiritum,  preces  fundimus 
humillimas  et  ardentissimas  . .  .  ne  humana  divinis 
officiant;  .  .  .  sed  potius  ut  ab  intellectu  puro  a 
phantasiis  et  vanitate  repurgato  et  divinis  ora- 
culis  nihilominus  subdito  et  prorsus  dedititio,  fidei 
dentur  quas  fidei  sunt;  postremo,  ut  scientiae  ve- 

B  B  2 


372  CONCLUSION. 

neno   a   serpente    infuso    quo    animus  humanus 

tumet   et  inflatur  deposito,  nee   altum  sapiamus 

nee    ultra    sobrium,    sed    veritatem   in  charitate 
colamus.'  * 

*  Bacon,  Instauratio  Magna. 


373 


APPENDIXES. 


APPENDIX  No.  I. 


CAVES  AT   WELLINGTON    VALLEY,   NEW   SOUTH  WALES. 


following  description  of  the  above  caves,  by  Sir 
JL  Thomas  Mitchell,  is  added  to  illustrate  what  has  been 
said  in  this  work  on  the  subject  of  caves  in  general  :  — 

e  We  first  descended  the  fissure  at  the  mouth  of  the 
large  cave,  and  then  clambered  over  large  rocks  until,  at 
125  feet  from  the  entrance,  we  found  these  inequalities  to 
be  covered  by  a  deep  bed  of  dry  reddish  dust,  forming  an 
even  floor.  This  red  earth  lay  also  in  heaps  under  lateral 
crevices,  through  which  it  seemed  to  have  been  washed 
down  from  above.  On  digging  to  a  considerable  depth  at 
this  point,  we  found  a  few  fragments  of  bone,  apparently  of 
the  kangaroo.  At  180  feet  from  the  mouth  is  the  largest 
part  of  the  cavern,  the  breadth  being  twenty  -five  feet,  and 
the  height  about  fifty  feet.  The  floor  consisted  of  the  same 
reddish  earth,  but  a  thick  stalagmitic  crust  extended,  for 
a  short  distance,  from  a  gigantic  stalactite  at  the  farther 
end  of  the  cavern.  On  again  digging  several  feet  deep 
into  the  red  earth  here,  we  met  with  no  lower  layer  of  sta- 
lagmite, nor  any  animal  remains. 

'On  a  corner  of  the  floor,  behind  the  stalactite,  and 
nearly  under  a  vertical  fissure,  we  found  a  heap  of  dry 
white  dust,  into  which  one  of  the  party  sank  to  the  waist. 

'  Passing  through  an  opening  to  the  left  of  the  stalactite, 
we  came  upon  an  abrupt  descent  into  a  lower  cavern. 
Having  reached  the  latter,  with  some  difficulty,  we  found 


374  APPENDIX    I. 

that  its  floor  was  about  twenty  feet  below  that  of  the 
cavern  above.  It  was  equally  level,  and  covered  to  a 
great  but  unascertained  depth  with  the  same  dry  red 
earth,  which  had  been  worn  down  about  five  feet,  in  a 
hollow  or  rut. 

*  A  considerable  portion  of  the  farthest  part  of  the  floor 
was  occupied  with  white  dust  or  ashes,  similar  to  that 
found  in  the  corner  of  the  upper  floor. 

'  This  lower  cavern  terminated  in  a  nearly  vertical  fis- 
sure, which  not  only  ascended  towards  the  external  sur- 
face, but  descended  to  an  unascertained  depth  beneath  the 
floor.  At  about  thirty  feet  below  the  lowest  part  of  the 
cavern,  it  was  found  to  contain  water,  the  surface  of  which 
I  ascertained  was  nearly  on  a  level  with  that  of  the  river 
Bell.  Having  descended  by  a  rope,  I  found  that  the  water 
was  very  transparent,  but  unfit  to  drink,  having  a  dis- 
agreeable brackish  flavour. 

*  This  lower  cavern  is  much  contracted  by  stalactites 
and  stalagmites. 

'  After  having  broken  through  some  hollow-sounding 
portions,  we  entered  two  small  lateral  caverns,  and  in  one 
of  these,  after  cutting  through  about  eight  inches  of  sta- 
lagmitic floor,  we  discovered  the  same  reddish  earth.  We 
dug  into  this  deposit  also,  but  discovered  no  pebbles  or 
organic  fragments,  but,  at  the  depth  of  two-and-a-half  feet, 
met  with  another  stalagmitic  layer,  which  was  not  pene- 
trated. This  fine  red  earth  or  dust  seemed  to  be  a  sedi- 
ment that  was  deposited  from  water  which  stood  in  the 
caves,  about  forty  feet  below  the  exterior  surface ;  for  the 
earth  is  found  exactly  at  that  height,  both  towards  the 
entrance  of  the  first  cavern  and  in  the  lateral  caverns. 

'  That  this  cave  had  been  enlarged  by  the  partial  sinking 
of  the  floor  is  not  improbable,  as  broken  stalagmitic 
columns  and  pillars,  like  broken  shafts,  and  once  probably 
in  contact  with  the  roof,  are  still  apparent. 

'  Eighty  feet  to  the  westward  of  this  cave  is  the  mouth 
of  another  of  a  different  description.  Here  the  surface 
consists  of  a  breccia,  full  of  fragments  of  bones ;  and  a 


APPENDIX   I.  375 

similar  compound,  confusedly  mixed  with  large  blocks  of 
limestone,  forms  the  sides  of  the  cavity.  This  cave  pre- 
sents, in  all  its  features,  a  striking  contrast  to  that  already 
described. 

*  Its  entrance  is  a  sort  of  pit,  having  a  wide  orifice, 
nearly  vertical,  and  its  recesses  are  accessible  only  by 
means  of  ladders  and  ropes. 

( Instead  of  walls  and  a  roof  of  solid  limestone  rock, 
we  found  shattered  masses,  apparently  held  together  by 
breccia,  also  of  a  reddish  colour,  and  full  of  fragments  of 
bones.  The  opening  in  the  surface  appears  to  have  been 
formed  by  the  subsidence  of  these  rocks,  at  the  time  when 
they  were  hurled  down,  mixed  with  breccia,  into  the  posi- 
tion which  they  still  retain.  Bones  were  but  slightly 
attached  to  the  surface  of  this  cement,  as  if  it  had  never 
been  in  a  very  soft  state,  and  this  we  have  reason  to  infer, 
also,  from  its  being  the  only  substance  supporting  several 
large  rocks,  and,  at  the  same  time,  keeping  them  asunder. 
On  the  other  hand,  we  find  portions  of  even  very  small 
bones,  and  also  small  fragments  of  the  limestone,  dispersed 
through  this  cementing  substance  or  breccia. 

'  The  pit  had  been  first  entered,  only  a  short  time  before 
I  examined  it,  by  Mr.  Rankin,  to  whose  assistance  in 
these  researches  I  am  much  indebted.  He  went  down 
by  means  of  a  rope  to  one  landing-place,  and  then,  fixing 
the  rope  to  what  seemed  a  projecting  portion  of  rock,  he 
let  himself  down  to  another  stage,  where  he  discovered,  on 
the  fragment  giving  way,  that  the  rope  had  been  fastened 
to  a  very  large  bone,  and  thus  these  fossils  were  discovered. 
The  large  bone  projected  from  the  upper  part  of  the 
breccia,  the  only  substance  which  supported  as  well  as 
separated  several  large  blocks,  and  it  was  covered  with  a 
large  tufaceous  incrustation  resembling  mortar.  No  other 
bone  of  so  great  dimensions  has  since  been  discovered 
within  the  breccia. 

'  From  the  second  landing-place  we  descended  through 
a  narrow  passage,  between  the  solid  rock  on  one  side  and 
huge  fragments,  chiefly  supported  by  breccia,  on  the  other, 


376  APPENDIX   I. 

the  roof  being  also  formed  of  the  latter,  and  the  floor  of 
loose  earth  and  stones.  We  then  reached  a  small  cavern, 
ending  in  several  fissures,  choked  up  with  the  breccia. 
One  of  these  crevices  terminated  in  an  oven-shaped  open- 
ing in  the  solid  rock,  and  was  completely  filled,  in  the 
lower  part,  with  soft  red  earth,  which  formed  also  the  floor 
in  front  of  it,  and  resembled  that  in  the  large  cavern, 
already  described. 

*  Osseous  breccia  filled  the  upper  part  of  this  small  recess, 
and  portions  of  it  adhered  to  the  sides  and  roof  adjoin- 
ing, as  if  this  substance  had  formerly  filled  the  Avhole 
cavity.  At  about  three  feet  from  the  floor,  the  breccia 
in  this  cavity  was  separated  from  the  loose  earth  below 
by  three  layers  of  stalagmitic  concretion,  each  about  two 
inches  thick  and  three  apart;  they  appeared  to  be  only 
the  remains  of  layers,  once  of  greater  extension,  as  frag- 
ments of  stalagmite  adhered  to  the  sides  of  the  cavity. 
The  spaces  between  what  remained  of  these  layers  were 
most  thickly  encrusted  with  tufaceous  matter ;  those  in 
the  upper  surfaces,  on  the  contrary,  were  very  white,  and 
free  from  the  red  ferruginous  ochre  which  filled  the 
cavities  of  those  in  the  breccia,  although  they  contained 
minute  transparent  crystals  of  carbonate  of  lime. 

f  On  digging  into  the  soft  red  earth,  forming  the  floor  of 
this  recess,  some  fragments  of  bone,  apparently  heavier 
than  those  of  the  breccia,  were  found,  and  one  portion 
seemed  to  have  been  gnawed  by  a  small  animal. 

'  We  obtained  also  in  this  earth  the  last  phalange  of  the 
greatest  toe  of  a  kangaroo,  and  a  small  water-worn  pebble  of 
quartz.  By  creeping  about  fifteen  feet  under  a  solid  mass 
of  solid  rock — which  left  an  opening  less  than  a  foot-and- 
a-half  above  the  floor,  we  reached  a  recess  about  fifteen  feet 
high  and  twelve  feet  wide.  The  floor  consisted  of  dry  red 
earth,  and,  on  digging  some  feet  down,  we  found  frag- 
ments of  bones,  a  very  large  kangaroo  tooth,  a  large  tooth 
of  an  unknown  animal,  and  one  resembling  some  frag- 
ments of  teeth  found  in  the  breccia. 

(  We  next  examined  a  third  cave,  about  100  yards  to 


APPENDIX    I.  377 

the  westward  of  the  last  described.  The  entrance,  like 
that  of  the  first,  was  tolerably  easy,  but  the  descent  over 
the  limestone  rocks  was  steeper,  and  very  moist  and  slimy ; 
our  progress  downwards  was  terminated  by  water,  which 
probably  communicated  with  the  river  Bell,  as  its  level 
was  much  lower  when  the  cave  was  first  visited,  during  a 
dry  season.  I  found  very  pure  iron  ochre  in  some  of  the 
fissures  of  this  cavern,  but  not  a  fragment  of  bone. 

*  Perceiving  that  the  breccia  where  it  occurred  extended 
to  the  surface,  I  directed  a  pit  to  be  dug  on  the  exterior, 
about  twenty  feet  from  the  mouth  of  the  cave,  and  at  a  part 
where  no  rocks  projected.     We  found  that  the  hill  there 
consisted  of  breccia  only,  and  was  harder  and  more  com- 
pact than  that  in  the  cave,  and  abounded  likewise  in 
organic  remains. 

*  Finally,  I  found  on  the  summit  of  the  same  hill  some 
weathered  blocks  of  breccia,  from  which  bones  protruded, 
and  a  large  and  remarkable  specimen. 

'  Other  caverns  containing  breccia  of  the  same  descrip- 
tion occur  in  various  parts  within  a  circuit  of  fifty  miles, 
and  they  may  probably  be  found  throughout  the  limestone 
country  not  yet  examined. 

'  On  the  north  bank  of  the  M'Quarrie,  eight  miles  east 
from  the  Wellington  Caves,  and  at  Buree,  about  fifty  miles 
to  the  southward  of  them,  I  found  this  breccia  at  consider- 
able depths,  having  been  guided  to  it  by  certain  peculiar 
appearances  of  subsidence  and  disruption,  and  by  yawning 
holes  in  the  surface,  which  previous  experience  had  taught 
me  to  consider  as  indications  of  its  existence. 

f  On  entering  one  of  these  fissures,  from  the  bed  of  the 
little  stream  near  Buree,  and  following  to  a  considerable 
distance  the  subterraneous  channel  of  a  rivulet,  we  found 
a  red  breccia,  containing  bones  as  abundantly  as  that  of 
Wellington  Valley.  It  occurred,  also,  amidst  masses  of 
broken  rocks,  between  which  we  climbed  until  we  saw 
daylight  above ;  and,  being  finally  drawn  out  with  ropes, 
we  emerged,  near  the  top  of  a  hill,  from  a  hole  very 
similar  in  appearance  to  the  mouth  of  the  cave  at  Wei- 


378  APPENDIX   I. 

lington,  which  it  also  resembled  in  having  breccia,  both  in 
the  sides  of  the  orifice  and  in  the  surface  around  it. 

'  At  Molong,  thirty-six  miles  east  of  Wellington  Valley, 
I  found  some  concreted  matter  within  a  small  cavity  of 
limestone  rock  on  the  surface,  and,  when  broken,  it  proved 
also  to  be  breccia  containing  fragments  of  bone. 

*  It  was  very  difficult  to  obtain  any  perfect  specimens  of 
the  remains  contained  in  the  breccia ;  the  smallest  of  the 
various  portions  brought  to  England  have,  nevertheless, 
been  carefully  examined  by  Professor  Owen,  at  the 
Hunterian  Museum,  and  I  have  received  from  that  distin- 
guished anatomist  the  accompanying  letter,  containing 
the  results  of  those  researches  and  highly  important 
determinations,  by  which  he  has  established  several  points 
of  the  greatest  interest,  as  connected  with  the  natural 
history  of  the  Australian  continent :  — 

"  Koyal  College  of  Surgeons, 
May  8th,  1838. 

"  Dear  Sir, 

"I  have  examined,  according  to  your  request, 
the  fossil  remains  which  you  discovered  in  Wellington 
Valley,  Australia,  and  which  are  now  deposited  in  the 
Museum  of  the  Geological  Society ;  they  belong  to  the 
following  genera : — 

«         "MACROPUS  Shaw. 

"  Sp.  1.  Macropus  Athos  (Owen). — This  must  have  been 
at  least  one-third  larger  than  Macropus  major,  the  largest 
known  existing  species :  it  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the 
great  size  of  its  permanent  spurious  molar,  in  which 
respect  it  approaches  the  subdivision  of  Spare's  genus, 
called  Hypsiprymnus  by  Illiger.  The  remains  of  this 
species  consist  of  a  fragment  of  the  right  ramus  of  the 
lower  jaw. 

"  Sp.  2,  Macropus  Titan  (O.). — I  give  this  name  to  an 
extinct  species  as  large  as  the  preceding,  but  differing 
chiefly  in  the  smaller  size  of  the  permanent  spurious  molar, 
which,  in  this  respect,  more  nearly  corresponds  with  the 


APPENDIX    I.  379 

existing  Macr.  major.  The  remains  of  this  species  consist 
of  a  fragment  of  the  right  ramus  of  the  lower  jaw. 

"  In  both  the  above  specimens  the  permanent  false  molar 
tooth  is  concealed  in  its  alveolus,  and  was  discovered  by 
removing  part  of  the  substance  of  the  jaw,  indicating  the 
nonage  of  the  individuals. 

"  A  portion  of  cranium  with  the  molar  series  of  teeth 
of  both  sides.  This  specimen  I  believe  to  belong  to  Ma- 
cropus  Titan. 

li  The  permanent  false  molar,  which  is  also  concealed  in 
this  upper  jaw,  is  larger  than  that  of  the  lower  jaw  of 
Macr.  Titan,  but  I  have  observed  a  similar  discrepancy  in 
size  in  the  same  teeth  of  an  existing  species  of  Macropus. 

"  To  one  or  other  of  the  two  preceding  gigantic  species 
of  kangaroo  must  be  referred  — 

"  II.  (a)  Crown  of  right  inferior  incisor. 

"  II.  (fi)  Lower  extremity  of  right  femur. 

"  II.  (c)  Lower  extremity  of  right  femur,  with  the  epe- 
physis  separated,  showing  its  correspondence  in  age  with 
the  animals  to  which  the  fossil  jaws  belonged. 

"II.  (rf)  Fifth  lumbar  vertebra. 

"II.  (e)  Tenth  or  eleventh  caudal  vertebra.  The  propor- 
tion of  this  bone  indicates  that  these  kangaroos  had  a  rela- 
tively stouter  and  perhaps  shorter  tail  than  the  existing 
species. 

"  Macropus  sp.  indeterm. — Agrees  in  size  with  Macro- 
pus  major,  but  there  is  a  difference  in  the  form  of  the 
sacrum,  the  second  vertebra  of  which  is  more  compressed. 
To  this  species,  which  cannot  be  determined  till  the  teeth 
be  found,  I  refer  the  specimens  marked 

"  III  Sacrum.  III.  (a)  Proximal  end  of  left  femur. 
III.  (b)  Proximal  end  of  left  tibia,  in  which  the  anterior 
spine  sinks  more  gradually  into  the  shaft  than  in  Macr. 
major.  As  this  is  the  only  species  with  the  skeleton 
of  which  I  have  been  enabled  to  compare  the  preceding 
fragments,  I  am  not  able  to  pronounce  as  to  their  specific 
distinctness  from  other  existing  species  of  equal  size  with 
the  Macropus  major. 


380  APPENDIX    I. 

"  Macropus  sp.  indeterm. —  From  want  of  skeletons  of 
existing  species  of  kangaroo,  I  must  leave  doubtful  the 
specific  determination  of  a  species  smaller  than  Macropus 
major,  represented  by  the  left  ramus  of  the  lower  jaw,  in 
which  the  permanent  false  molar  is  in  place  together  with 
four  true  molars,  and  which  would  therefore  be  a  species 
of  Halmaturus  of  Fred.  Cuvier. 

"Macropus  (5).  —  Part  of  the  left  ramus  of  the  lower 
jaw,  with  two  grinders  in  place,  and  a  third  which  has  not 
quite  cut  through  the  jaw. 

"  V.  (a)  Sixth  and  seventh  grinders,  according  to  the 
order  of  their  developement,  right  side,  upper  jaw  of  a 
kangaroo  not  quite  so  large  as  Macropus  major. 

"  Several  other  bones  and  portions  of  bone  are  referable 
to  the  genus  Macropus,  but  they  do  not  afford  information 
of  sufficient  interest  or  importance  to  be  specially  noticed. 

"  Genus  HYPSIPRYMNUS. 

"  Hypsiprymnus  sp.  indeterm.  —  A  portion  of  upper 
jaw  and  palate,  with  the  deciduous  false  molar  and  four 
true  molars  in  place  on  each  side ;  the  fifth  or  posterior 
molar  is  concealed  in  the  alveolus,  as  also  the  crown  of  the 
permanent  false  molar.  4 

"  Hypsiprymnus. — Part  of  the  right  ramus  of  the  lower 
jaw,  exhibiting  a  corresponding  stage  of  dentition: 

"  Obs.  This  species  is  rather  larger  than  any  of  the  three 
species  with  the  crania  of  which  I  have  had  the  oppor- 
tunity of  comparing  them :  there  is  no  evidence  that  it 
agrees  with  any  existing  species. 

"  Genus  PHALANGESTA. 

"  No.  7.  Cranium  coated  with  stalactite. 

"  No.  7  (a).  Part  of  right  ramus,  with  spurious  and 
second  molar. 

"  No.  7  (&).    Right  ramus,  lower  jaw. 

"  Obs.  The  two  latter  specimens  disagree  with  the 
Phal.  vulpina,  in  having  the  spurious  molar  of  relatively 
smaller  size,  and  the  second  molar  narrower ;  the  symphysis 


APPENDIX   I.  381 

of  the  lower  jaw  is  also  one  line  deeper  in  the  fossil. 
As  the  two  latter  specimens  agree  in  size  with  the  cranium, 
they  probably  are  all  parts  of  the  same  species,  of  which 
there  is  no  proof  that  it  corresponds  with  any  existing 
species. 

"  But  a  comparison  of  the  fossils  with  the  bones  of  these 
species  (which  are  much  wanted  in  our  osteological  col- 
lection) is  obviously  necessary  to  establish  the  important 
fact  of  the  specific  difference  or  otherwise  of  the  extinct 
phalanger. 

"  Genus  PHASCOLOMYS. 

"  Sp.  Phase.  Mitchellii.  —  Mutilated  cranium. 

"  No.  8  (a).  Part  of  lower  jaw  belonging  to  the  above. 

"  No.  8  (6).  Right  series  of  molar  teeth  in  situ. 

"  No.  8  (c).  Right  ramus  of  the  lower  jaw. 

"  Obs.  These  remains  come  nearer  to  the  existing  spe- 
cies than  do  those  of  any  of  the  preceding  genera ;  but, 
after  a  minute  comparison,  I  find  that  there  is  a  slight 
difference  in  the  form  of  the  grinders,  which,  in  the  fossil, 
have  the  antero-posterior  diameter  greater  in  proportion 
than  the  transverse;  the  first  grinder  is  also  relatively 
larger  and  of  a  more  prismatic  form ;  the  upper  incisors 
are  less  compressed  and  more  prismatic.  This  difference 
is  so  well  marked,  that,  once  appreciated,  any  one  might 
recognise  the  fossil  by  an  incisor  alone.  There  is  a  similar 
difference  in  the  shape  of  the  lower  incisor.  The  fossil  is 
also  a  little  larger  than  the  largest  wombat  cranium  in  the 
Hunterian  collection.  From  these  differences  I  feel  no 
hesitation  in  considering  the  species  to  which  these  fossils 
belong  as  distinct,  and  propose  to  call  it  Phascolomys 
Mitchellii. 

fe  Genus  DIPKOTODON. 

"  I  apply  this  name  to  the  genus  of  Mammalia  repre- 
sented by  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  right  ramus 
of  the  lower  jaw,  with  a  single  large  procumbent  incisor. 
This  is  the  specimen  conjectured  to  have  belonged  to 
the  dugong,  but  the  incisor  resembles  the  corresponding 


382  APPENDIX   I. 

tooth  of  the  wombat  in  its  enamelled  structure  and  posi- 
tion ;  but  it  differs  in  the  quadrilateral  figure  of  its  trans- 
verse section,  in  which  it  corresponds  with  the  inferior 
incisors  of  the  hippopotamus. 

"Genus  DASYURUS. 

"  Das.  lancarius  (O). — I  apply  this  name  to  the  species 
to  which  the  following  remains  belong:  — 

"  XL  Portions  of  the  left  side  of  the  upper  jaw. 

"  XL  (a)  Ditto. 

"  XL  (6)  Left  ramus  of  lower  jaw,  with  lost  grinders. 

"  XI.  (c)  Anterior  part  of  the  right  ramus  of  lower  jaw. 

"  This  species  closely  resembles  Das.  ursinus,  but  differs 
in  being  one-third  larger,  and  in  having  the  canines  or 
laniaries  of  proportionately  larger  size. 

"  The  position  of  the  teeth  in  the  specimen  marked  XL, 
which  are  wider  apart,  leads  me  to  doubt  whether  it  is 
the  lower  jaw  of  Das.  lancarius,  or  of  some  extinct  marsu- 
pial carnivora  of  an  allied  but  distinct  species. 

"  The  general  results  of  the  above  examination  are  : — 

"  1st.  That  the  fossils  are  not  referable  to  any  known 
extra- Australian  genus  of  Mammals. 

"  2nd.  That  the  fossils  are  not  referable,  from  the 
present  evidence,  to  any  existing  species  of  Australian 
Mammals. 

"  3rd.  That  the  greater  number  certainly  belong  to 
species  either  extinct  or  not  yet  discovered  living  in 
Australia. 

"  4th.  That  the  extinct  species  of  Macropus,  Dasyurus, 
Phascolomys,  especially  Macr.  Aihos  and  Macr.  Titan,  are 
larger  than  the  largest  known  existing  species. 

"  5th.  That  the  remains  of  the  saltatory  animals,  as  the 
Macropi,  Helmaturi,  and  Hypsiprymni,  are  all  of  young 
individuals;  while  those  of  the  burrowing  wombat,  the 
climbing  phalanger,  and  the  ambulatory  dasyure  are  of 

adults. 

"  I  remain,  dear  Sir,  &c., 
"(Signed)  RICHARD  OWEN." 


APPENDIX    I.  383 

'  To  this  it  may  be  added,  that  the  wombat's  skull  is  fully 
as  large  as  the  skull  of  an  elephant. 

*  Nothing  could  be  discovered,  in  the  present  state  of 
these  caverns,  at  all  likely  to  throw   any  light  on  the 
history  or  age  of  the  breccia,  but  the  phenomena  they 
present  seem  to  indicate  more  than  one  change  in  the 
physical  outline  of  the  adjacent  regions,  and  probably  of 
more  distant  portions  of  Australia,  at  a  period  antecedent 
to  the  existing  state  of  the  country. 

*  Dry  earth  occurred  in  the  floor  of  both  the  caverns  at 
Wellington  Valley  and  in  the  small  chamber  of  the  breccia 
cave ;  it  was  found,  as  before  stated,  beneath  the  three 
lines  of  stalagmite  and  the  osseous  breccia.      It  seems 
probable,  therefore,  that  this  earth  once  filled  the  cave 
also   to  the   same  line,  and  that  the  stalagmite  then  ex- 
tended over  the  floor  of  red  earth..      Moreover,  I  am  of 
opinion    that    the  interval    between  the   stalagmite  and 
the  roof   was  partly  occupied  by  the  bone  breccia,  of 
which  portions  remain  attached  to  the  roof  and   sides 
above  the  line  of  stalagmite.      It  is  difficult  to  conceive 
how  the  mass  of  red  earth  and  stalagmitic  floors  could  be 
displaced,  except  by  a  subsidence  in  the  original  floor  of 
the  cave.     But  the  present  floor  contains  no  vestiges  of 
breccia  fallen  from   the  roof,  nor   any  remains   of  the 
stalagmitic  crust  once  adhering  to  the  sides  —  which  are 
both,  therefore,  probably  deposited   below   the   present 
floor.     In  the  external  or  upper  part  of  the  same  cave, 
the  floor  consisted   of  the   red   dust,  and   was   covered 
with  loose    fragments  of  rock,   apparently   fallen   from 
conglomerated  masses  of  limestone   and   breccia,  which 
also,  however,  extended  under  the  red  earth  there.    Thus 
it  would   appear   that  traces   remain   in  these  caverns, 
first,  of  an  aqueous  deposit  in  the  red  earth  found  below 
the  stalagmite  in  one  cavern,  and  beneath  breccia  in  the 
other ;  secondly,  of  a  long  dry  period,  as  appears  in  the 
thick  crust  of  stalagmite,  covering  the  lowest  deposit  in 
the  largest  -cavern,  and  during  which  some  cavities  were 
filled  with  breccia,  even  with  the  external  surface  ;  thirdly, 


384  APPENDIX    I. 

of  a  subsidence  in  the  breccia  and  associated  rocks ;  and 
lastly,  of  a  deposit  of  red  earth  similar  to  the  first. 

'  The  present  floor  in  both  caves  bears  all  the  evidence 
of  a  deposition  from  water,  which  probably  filled  the 
interior  of  the  cavern  to  an  unknown  height.  It  is  clear 
that  sediment  deposited  in  this  manner  would,  when  the 
waters  were  drawn  off,  be  left  in  the  state  of  fine  mud, 
and  would  become,  on  drying,  a  more  or  less  friable  earth. 
Any  water  charged  with  carbonate  of  lime,  which  might 
have  been  subsequently  introduced,  would  have  deposited 
the  calcareous  matter  in  stalactites  or  stalagmites ;  but 
the  general  absence  of  these  is  accounted  for  in  the  dry- 
ness  of  the  caves.  This  sedimentary  floor  contained  few 
or  no  bones,  except  such  as  had  previously  belonged  to 
the  breccia,  as  was  evident  from  the  minuter  cavities  having 
been  still  filled  with  that  substance. 

'  I  do  not  pretend  to  account  for  the  phenomena  pre- 
sented by  the  caverns,  yet  it  is  evident,  from  the  sedi- 
ments of  mud  forming  the  extensive  margins  of  the 
Darling,  that  at  one  period  the  waters  of  that  spacious 
basin  were  of  much  greater  volume  than  at  present ;  and 
it  is  more  than  probable  that  the  caves  of  Wellington 
Valley  were  twice  immersed  under  temporary  inundations. 
I  may,  therefore,  be  permitted  to  suggest,  from  the  evi- 
dence I  am  about  to  detail  of  changes  of  level  on  the 
coast,  that  the  plains  of  the  interior  were  formerly  arms 
of  the  sea,  and  that  inundations  of  greater  height  have 
twice  penetrated  into  or  filled  with  water  the  subter- 
raneous cavities,  and  probably,  on  their  recession  from 
higher  parts  of  the  land,  parts  of  the  surface  have  been 
altered  and  some  additional  channels  of  fluviatile  drainage 
hollowed  out.  The  accumulation  of  animal  remains,  very 
much  broken  and  filling  up  hollow  parts  of  the  surface, 
show,  at  least,  that  this  surface  has  modified  since  it  was 
first  inhabited,  and  these  operations  appear  to  have  taken 
place  subsequently  to  the  extinction,  in  that  part  of  Aus- 
tralia, of  the  species  whose  remains  are  found  in  the 
breccia,  and  previously  to  the  existence  in  at  least  the 
same  districts  of  the  present  species. 


APPENDIX    I.  385 

f  No  entire  skeleton  has  been  discovered,  and  very  rarely 
were  any  two  bones  of  the  same  animal  found  together. 
On  the  contrary,  even  the  corresponding  fragments  of  a 
bone  were  frequently  detected  some  yards  apart.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  would  appear,  from  the  position  of  the  teeth 
in  one  skull,  that  they  were  only  falling  out  from  putre- 
faction at  the  time  the  skull  was  finally  deposited  in  the 
breccia,  and  from  the  nearly  natural  position  of  the 
smaller  bones  in  the  foot  of  a  Dasyurus.  It  can  scarcely 
be  doubted  that  this  part  of  the  skeleton  was  embedded  in 
the  cement  when  the  ligaments  still  bound  the  bones 
together.  The  united  radius  and  ulna  of  a  kangaroo  are 
additional  evidences  of  the  same  kind ;  and  yet,  if  the  bones 
have  been  so  separated  and  dispersed,  and  broken  into 
minute  fragments,  as  they  now  appear  in  this  breccia, 
while  they  were  still  bound  together  by  ligaments,  it  is 
difficult  to  imagine  how  that  could  take  place  under  any 
natural  process  with  which  we  are  acquainted.  It  may, 
however,  be  observed,  that  the  breccia  is  never  found 
below  ground  without  unequivocal  proofs  in  the  rocks 
accompanying  it  of  disruption  and  subsidence,  and  that 
the  best  specimens  of  single  bones  have  been  found 
wedged  between  huge  rocks  where  the  breccia  is  found 
like  mortar  between  them,  in  situations  eight  or  ten  fathoms 
under  ground.' 


C  C 


386 


APPENDIX  No.  IT. 

FOSSIL    CLIFFS   OF    THE    GREAT    AUSTRALIAN   BIGHT. 

following  description  of  the  nature  of  the  fossil 
JL  cliffs  of  the  Australian  Bight  is  taken  from  the 
narrative  of  Mr.  Eyre,  who,  in  1840,  made  a  terrible  and 
disastrous  journey  round  them  : — 

t  Being  now  at  a  part  of  the  cliffs  where  they  receded 
from  the  sea,  and  where  they  had  at  last  become  ac- 
cessible, I  devoted  some  time  to  an  examination  of  their 
geological  character.  The  part  that  I  selected  was  high, 
steep,  and  bluff  towards  the  sea,  which  washed  its  base, 
presenting  the  appearance  described  by  Captain  Flinders, 
as  noted  before.  By  crawling  and  scrambling  among  the 
crags,  I  managed,  at  some  risk,  to  get  at  these  singular 
cliffs.  The  brown  or  upper  portion  consisted  of  an 
exceedingly  hard,  coarse,  grey  limestone,  among  which 
some  few  shells  were  embedded,  but  which,  from  the  hard 
nature  of  the  rock,  I  could  not  break  out ;  the  lower  or 
white  part  consisted  of  a  gritty  chalk,  full  of  broken 
shells  and  marine  productions,  and  having  a  somewhat 
saline  taste :  parts  of  it  exactly  resembled  the  formation 
that  I  had  found  up  to  the  north,  among  the  fragments  of 
table  land.  The  chalk  was  soft  and  friable  at  the  surface, 
and  easily  cut  out  with  a  tomahawk ;  it  was  traversed 
horizontally  by  strata  of  flint,  ranging  in  depth  from  six 
to  eighteen  inches,  and  having  varying  thicknesses  of 
chalk  between  the  several  strata.  The  chalk  had  worn 
away  from  beneath  the  hard  rock  above,  leaving  the 
latter  most  frightfully  overhanging,  and  threatening  in- 
stant annihilation  to  the  intruder.  Huge  misshapen 
masses  were  lying  with  their  rugged  pinnacles  above  the 


APPENDIX    II.  387 

water  in  every  direction  at  the  foot  of  the  cliffs,  plainly 
indicating  the  frequency  of  a  falling  crag ;  and  I  felt  quite 
a  relief  when  my  examination  was  completed,  and  I  got 
away  from  so  dangerous  a  post.'  * 

From  this  extract,  it  appears  beyond  much  doubt  that 
the  cliffs  are  the  same  formation  as  those  of  the  Murray 
and  those  of  Mount  Gambier.  The  upper  and  lower 
deposits  are  identical  with  those  of  the  latter  places,  and 
strongly  resemble  the  mode  in  which  the  Pleiocene  Crag 
occurs  at  home.  Thus  a  geological  period,  which  has 
left  but  slender  records  in  Europe,  is  largely  represented 
in  Australia,  and  forms  a  very  large  portion  of  its  con- 
tinent. 


*  Expedition  to  Central  Australia.    By  E.  J.  Eyre.    London :  Boone, 
1845. 


cc  2 


INDEX. 


INDEX. 


ACACIA  MOLLISSIMA,  30 
Acalephsa,  or  jelly-fishes,  137 

Adelaide,  position  of  the  city  of,  18. 
Character  of  the  rocks  near,  59- 
Range  of  hills  on  which  it  is  built, 
1 10.  Strata  on  which  it  is  built,  208. 
Earthquakes  near,  213 

Adelaide,  colony  of.  See  Australia,  South 

Adelsberg  caves,  321 

Adiantum  assimile,  358 

Albert,  Lake,  204,  205 

Alexandrina,  Lake,  204 

Alps,  the  Australian,  19.  Their  height, 
19,  note 

America,  now  in  her  Pleiocene  period, 
139 

Ainygdaloidal  trap  at  Grant  Bay,  1 58 

Araucarias  found  only  in  Norfolk  Island 
and  Australia,  139 

Arnhem's  Land,  15 

—  geological  formation  of,  17 

Arthrozamise,  139 

Asia  Minor,  tertiary  strata  of,  88 

Asplenium  laxum  at  the  mouth  of  Van- 
sittart's  Cave,  358 

Asteroidea,  fossil,  78 

Astraea  found  on  the  South  Australian 
coast,  187,  188 

Astro-Pecten,  83 

Atolls,  or  ring  islands,  13,  14.  White 
mud  of  the,  92.  Description  of  an  atoll, 
96.  Darwin's  theory  of  the  formation 
of,  125.  Probable  remains  of  atolls  at 
Swede's  Flat  and  Half-way  Gulley, 
131.  Causes  why  one  side  of  an  atoll 
is  invariably  broken  down,  149 

Australia,  geography  of,  1 2.     Nature  of 


a  new  country  told  by  the  scenery  of 
the  coast,  13.  Geological  queries  to 
be  answered  by  Australia,  14.  For- 
mation of  the  coast,  1 5.  The  conti- 
nent formerly  separated  into  two 
halves,  17.  Australian  Cordillera,  18. 
The  South  Australian  chain  of  moun- 
tains, 19 — 21.  Traces  of  the  action 
of  glaciers  in  them,  20.  Metals  and 
minerals  found  in  them,  2 1,22.  Geology 
of  Northern  and  Western  Australia,  22. 
General  view  of  Australian  geology, 
24.  Meteorology  of  Australia,  24. 
Geological  connection  between  Aus- 
tralia and  the  older  hemisphere,  88. 
Former  higher  temperature  of  Aus- 
tralia, 99 — 134.  Upheaval  of  a  por- 
tion of  Australia  now  taking  place, 
135.  Australia  geologically  far  be- 
hind the  rest  of  the  world,  139. 
Badly  adapted  for  the  habitation  of 
man,  141  —  144.  Periodically  dry 
seasons,  145.  The  Australian  abo- 
rigines extremely  degraded  and  help- 
less, 146.  Aspect  of  the  coast  of 
Australia,  182.  Upheaval  of  the 
coast  of  Australia,  207.  Absence  of 
active,  and  few  extinct,  volcanoes  in 
Australia,  225.  Specimen  of  the 
beauty  of  the  Australian  flora,  267. 
Beasts  of  prey,  313. 
Australia,  South,  ignorance  respecting 
its  geology,  8.  Mr.  Selwyn's  cata- 
logue of  its  rocks,  9.  Its  formation 
and  mineralogicai  productions,  9.  The 
South  Australian  range  of  mountains, 
19 — 21.  Description  of  the  South- 


392 


INDEX. 


Eastern  District,  on  the  surface,  26. 
And  of  the  rocks,  58.  Table  of  fos- 
sils found  in,  77.  Extent  of  the 
South-Eastern  District,  103.  Boun- 
dary line  between  South  Australia 
and  Victoria,  120.  Perils  of  the 
coast  from  reefs,  from  Rivoli  Bay  to 
Guichen  Bay,  1 62.  Sand-drifts  round 
the  coast,  166.  Antagonistic  forces 
at  work  on  the  coast,  170.  Destruc- 
tion of  the  cliffs  in  winter,  170. 
What  has  become  of  the  detritus  ? 
171.  History  of  the  deposit  as  pre- 
sented by  the  rocks,  171.  Origin  of 
the  sand  of  the  Australian  coast,  187. 
Lakes  on  the  coast,  195.  Upheaval 
of  the  coast,  205.  Proved  from  the 
coast-line,  206.  And  from  the  rivers, 
208.  Earthquakes,  213.  Periods  of 
rest,  219.  South  Australian  volcanoes. 
224.  Rich  meadow-like  appearance 
of  the  country  between  Mounts  Gam- 
bier  and  Shanck,  264.  The  smaller 
volcanoes,  282.  Connection  between 
them,  288.  Gold  in  South  Australia, 
298.  Granite  in  the  bed  of  the  Mur- 
ray river,  298.  Caves  in  South 
Australia,  299,  el  seq. 
Australia,  Western,  coal  beds  of,  22. 
Little  known  of  the  geology  of,  22 


BAHIA  BLANCA,  sand  dunes  of, 
and  sandstone  near,  222 

Bald  Head,  coral  found  on,  115,  116. 
Supposed  fossil  trees  at,  165 

Ballarat,  rise  of,  4 

Bandicoot,  bones  of,  found  in  the  first 
cave  at  Mosquito  Plains,  335 — 338 

Banksia  integraefolia,  of  the  ridges,  SO. 
Of  the  Honeysuckle  Country,  42 

Banksia  ornata,  36 

Bark,  stringy,  31 

Barossa  Mountains,  110     • 

Barrier  reef,  the  great,  of  the  west  side 
of  Australia,  22.  Darwin's  descrip- 
tion of  the,  23 

Barrier  reefs  of  coral,  125 

Basaltic  rocks  at  Portland  Bay,  121 — 
157.  At  Cape  Bridge  water,  157 

Bathurst  Island,  15 


Bats,  resort  for,  in  a  cave  at  Limestone 

Eidge,  366 
Bay  :  — 

-  Grant,  153 

—  Guichen,26,  52,53,  150,  163,  169 

—  Lacepede,  159 

—  Portland,  26,  121,  157 

-  Rivoli,  159,  206 
Beach  Caves.     See  Caves 

Beach  terraces,  formation  of,  215.  Le- 
vels of  the,  218 

Beasts  of  prey,  Australian,  313 

Bermuda,  white  mud  of  the  reefs  of,  93 

Bight,  the  Australian,  116.  Evidence 
of  the  nature  of  the,  118 

Birds,  scarcity  of,  in  Australia,  140 

'  Biscay  Country '  or  '  Dead  Men's 
Graves,'  47 

'Biscuits,'  limestone,  42,  43.  Their 
origin,  43 

Blanche  Caves,  near  Penola,  323.  See 
Caves 

Blandowski,  M.,  his  survey  and  maps  of 
the  three  Lakes  of  Mount  Gambier, 
227 

'  Blow-holes '  in  the  rocks  at  Guichen 
Bay,  170 

Blue  Lake,  on  Mount  Gambier,  228. 
The  four  kinds  of  rock  on  the  sides 
of,  229.  Nature  of  the  eruptions 
which  have  taken  place  in  the  crater 
of,  243,  250,  253.  Its  beautiful 
crystal  water,  246.  Its  depth  and 
flat  bottom,  247.  Subsidence  coinci- 
dent with  volcanic  disturbance,  251 

Bombs,  volcanic,  268 

Bones,  deposits  of,  on  the  banks  of 
swamps,  54.  And  in  crevices  of  the 
limestone  rocks,  56.  Theories  re- 
specting bones  and  caves,  302.  How 
bones  become  preserved  in  rivers,  310. 
Bones  found  in  caves  always  larger 
than  those  of  species  now  in  existence, 
333.  Bones  in  the  first  cave  at  Mos- 
quito Plains,  334.  Bones  of  Rodentia 
found,  335.  Bones  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Cave  of  Mount  Burr,  357 

Bonney  Lake,  196.  Description  of  it, 
202 

Boulders  of  trap  rock  in  Grant  Bay.  154 

Brachiopoda,  fossil,  79 


INDEX. 


393 


Bridgewater  Cape,  153.  Rocks  at,  154, 
157 

Bryozoa,  fossil,  of  the  limestone  forma- 
tion, 73.  Meaning  of  the  term,  73. 
Characters  of  Bryozoa,  73.  Difference 
between  it  and  the  true  coral,  73, 74. 
Table  of  fossil  Bryozoa  found  by  the 
author,  78.  Age  of  Bryozoa,  88. 
Deposit  of  Mount  Gambier  derived 
from,  97 

Bunce's  description  of  the  fossiliferous 
limestone  of  Tasmania,  122 

Burr,  Mount,  287.  Character  of  the 
rocks,  287.  Caves  of  Mount  Burr, 
353.  Roots  of  trees  hanging  from 
the  ceiling,  355.  Mud  at  bottom,  356 

Burra  Burra  copper  mine,  5 

Bursaria  spinosa,  of  the  ridges,  33 


CAPE  BRIDGEWATER,   153,  154, 
157 

—  Grant,  153,  154, 163 

—  Jaffa,  162 

—  Jervis,  110 

—  Lannes,  152 

—  Otway,  121 

—  Paisley,  New,  114,  116 

—  Yorke,  17 

Caripe,  the  river,  origin  of,  317 

Carpentaria,  Gulf  of,  15.  Geological 
formation  of,  17 

Casuarina  sequsefolia,  the  shea  oak  of 
the  colonists,  30 

Cats,  native  (Dasyurus  Maugii),  56. 
Bones  of,  found  in  caves,  340. 

Cave  Station,  origin  of  the  immense 
basins  of  chasms  at,  240 

Caves,  299.  Near  Mount  Gambier,  64. 
At  Guichen  Bay,  169.  'Blow- 
holes '  of  the,  1 70.  Denudation  and 
its  effects.  299.  Caves  in  the  trap 
and  limestone,  300.  Four  kinds  of 
caves,  301.  Points  of  resemblance 
between  them  all,  301,  302.  Bones 
in  caves,  and  theories  respecting, 
302.  Caves  made  by  fissures,  303. 
How  bones  come  into  them,  304. 
Parallel  instances  in  South  Austra- 
lia, 305.  Course  of  rivers  in  caves, 
306.  The  Katavothra,  or  caves  of 


the  Morea,  306.  The  Swede's  Flat, 
309.  How  bones  become  preserved 
in  rivers,  310.  Why  bones  alone  are 
found,  311.  Caves  which  have  been 
dens  of  animals  of  prey,  313.  Sea- 
beach  caves,  314.  Paviland  Cave, 
314.  Egress  caves,  316.  None  in 
Australia,  316.  The  Cueva  del  Gua- 
charo,  316.  The  mammoth  caves  of 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  319.  In- 
terest attaching  to  caves,  321.  First 
cave  at  Mosquito  Plains,  323.  Se- 
cond cave,  325.  Third  cave,  327. 
Dried  corpse  of  a  native,  329.  Ro- 
bertson's Parlour,  331.  Connection 
between  it  and  deeper  caves,  332. 
Coralline  fossiliferous  limestone  com- 
posing the  rocks,  333.  Bones  found 
in  caves  always  larger  than  those 
which  are  contemporaneous  with 
man,  333.  Bones  in  the  first  cave  at 
the  Mosquito  Plains,  334.  Bones  of 
Rodentia  found,  335.  Other  bones, 
338,  How  the  animals  were  em- 
bedded, 342.  Resultofinundation,343, 
et  seq.  Cause  of  the  signs  of  floods 
near  the  volcanoes,  347.  How  the 
limestone  dissolved,  348.  The  theory 
of  the  bones  found  in  caves  being 
relics  of  the  Deluge  quite  untenable, 
349.  Caves  of  Mount  Burr,  353. 
Vansittart's  Cave,  357.  Mitchell's 
Cave,  359.  The  Drop-Drop  Cavern, 
360.  Ellis's  Cave,  363.  Cave  near 
Mount  Shanck,  365.  Caves  at  Lime- 
stone Ridge  Station,  365.  Bat  Cave, 
366,  note.  Other  smaller  caves,  366. 
Sir  J.  Mitchell's  description  of  the 
caves  in  Wellington  Valley  quoted, 
373 

Cellepora  gambierensis,  74,  85,  97. 
Where  mostly  found,  91 

Cephalopoda,  fossil,  found  by  the  author, 
80 

Cerithium  in  the  recent  limestone,  190 

Cetacea,  fossil  remains  of,  found  on  the 
banks  of  the  Murray,  80 

Chalk  formation,  origin  of  the,  13,  14. 
Similarity  of  the  mud  of  coralline 
reefs  to  chalk,  92,  93.  Origin  of 
the  chalk  of  England  and  France, 


394 


INDEX. 


96.     Extent  of  the  chalk  formation 
of  Europe,  100 

Chara,  remarkable  growth  of  the,  in  a 
fresh- water  lagoon,  53 

Cibotium  Billardieri,  359 

Cidaris,  fossil  spines  of,  81 

Cirripedia,  fossil,  78 

Clarence  Strait,  15. 

Chine's  gold  mine,  near  Ballarat,  297 

Clypeaster,  77 

Coal,  beds  of,  in  Victoria,  22.  In 
Western  Australia,  22 

Coast,  the  geological  character  of  a  coun- 
try told  from  the  appearance  of  the,  1 3 

Colac,  Lake,  deposit  of  bones  on  the 
banks  of,  55 

Conchifera,  fossil,  found  on  the  banks 
of  the  Murray,  105 

Conclusions,  summary  of,  368 

Concretions  of  lime  and  sand  of  the 
Cape  Jaffa  reefs,  162,  163.  Their 
origin,  166.  Not  fossil  trees,  167 

Conglomerate,  tenacious,  found  in  Grant 
Bay,  159 

Coorong,  the,  195,  364.  Description 
of,  197 

Copper  mines  of  Burra  Burra,  5.  And 
of  Kapunda,  6 

Coral,  moss.    See  Bryozoa 

Corals,  found  on  Bald  Head,  115,  116. 
Depth  of  sea  in  which  they  can  live, 
89.  How  deposited,  90.  Corals  of 
Mosquito  Plains,  133 

Coral  islands,  or  atolls,  13,  14.  Mr. 
Darwin's  theory  of  the  formation  of 
the,  125 

Coralline  limestone,  86 

—  reefs,  91.  The  mud  derived  from, 
92.  Description  of  a  reef,  94. 
Difficulty  as  to  the  nature  of  the 
coral,  99.  Extent  of  the  formation, 
99.  Class  of  reefs  to  which  the 
coralline  crag  belongs,  127.  Cessation 
of  the  coralline  formation,  148 

Corethrostylis  Schultzenii,  53 

Cordillera,  Australian,  18 

Cornwall,  the  sand  formation  of,  184 

Corraea  cardinalis  of  the  heath  country, 
37 

Crag,  lower,  of  England,  probable  iden- 
tity of  the,  with  the  tertiary  deposits 


of  South  Australia,  85,  86.  Features 
of  the  crag,  86 

Crag,  upper,  description  of  the,  150.  Its 
extent,  150.  Derived  from  an  ocean 
current,  151.  Material  of  which  it 
is  composed,  152.  Upper  crag  at 
Cape  Lannes,  152.  Of  Grant  Bay, 
155.  Other  localities  in  Australia 
in  which  it  is  found,  159.  Its  vari- 
able capability  for  resisting  the  action 
of  the  atmosphere  and  sea-water, 
161.  The  concretions  called  fossil- 
trees,  163.  History  of  the  deposit  of 
the  upper  crag,  173.  Evidence  of 
its  partial  destruction,  174.  Want 
of  uniformity  in  its  thickness,  174. 
Causes  of  this,  175.  Raised,  175. 
Its  subsequent  removal,  176.  Its 
age,  176,  177.  Compared  with  the 
coralline  crag  of  Suffolk,  177.  Ab- 
sence of  fossils  in  the  South  Austra- 
lian crag,  178 

Craters.  See  Volcanoes.  Of  subsi- 
dence, 284 

Cray-fish  of  the  plains,  43,  51.  Holes 
made  by  the,  43 

'  Cribbage-pegs,  fossil,'  81 

Cristellaria  of  the  limestone  rock,  71 

Cruziana  cucurbita,  found  at  Nuriootpa, 
21,  note 

Cyclops  vulgaris  in  the  swamps,  52 

Cypris,  the,  in  the  lakes  of  South  Aus- 
tralia, 52 

DARWIN,  MR.,  his  theory  of  the 
limestone  formation,  125 

Dasyurus  Maugii,  or  native  cat,  bones  of 
the,  found  in  caves,  340.  Found  in 
Wellington  Valley,  382 

'  Dead  Men's  Graves,'  or  '  Biscay  Coun- 
try,' 47.  Origin  of  the  graves,  47 

Deluge,  the  bones  found  in  caves  no 
evidence  of  the,  349 

Denudation  and  its  effects,  299 

Desimadte  in  the  swamps,  52 

Diamonds  found  in  the  South  Australian 
range  of  hills,  21 

Diatomaceas  in  the  swamps,  52.  Sand 
composed  of  the  frustules  of,  53 

Dillwynia  floribunda,  37 

Dimyaria,  fossil,  found  by  the  author,  79 


INDEX. 


395 


Dingo,  the  Australian,  313 

Diprotodon,  bones  of,  found  in  Welling- 
ton Valley,  381 

Dismal  Swamp,  the,  of  the  South- 
Eastern  District,  27 

Disturbance,  common  in  the  northern. 
but  uncommon  in  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere, 225,  226 

Dolerite  found  in  the  craters  of  Mount 
Gambier,  258 

Dolomite  of  the  '  Biscay  Country,'  48. 
Origin  of,  48 

Drainage,  subterranean,  364 

Drop-Drop  Cavern,  360 

Droughts,  periodical,  of  Australia,  145 

Dunes,  sand.     See  Sand  Dunes 

TIARTH,  analogy  of  the  present  state 
•U    of  its  crust  with  former  geological 

epochs,  136 
Earthquakes,  and  the  upheaving  of  the 

South  Australian  coast,  213 
Echinida,  beds  of  fossil  spines  of.  81 
Echinoidea,  77 
Echinolampus,  77 

Edward,  Lake,  283.     Evidences  of  vol- 
canic action,  283 
Edward,  Mount,  288 
Egress  caves.     See  Caves 
Eliza,  Lake,  formation  of  salt  taking 
place  in,  69,   195.     Description  of 
199 
Ellis's   Cave,   363.      An   underground 

channel  of  drainage,  364 
Entomostraca,  78 
Entromostraca  brachiopoda,  73 
Epacris  impressa  of  the  heath  country 

37 

Eremacausis,  instance  of,  in  the  caves  of 
the  Mosquito  Plains,  329.  Causes 
of,  330 

Etna,  bottom  of  the  crater  of,  272 
Eucalyptus  dumosa,  or  mallee  scrub,  33 
Eucalyptus  fabrorum,  or  stringy  bark,  31 
Eucalyptus  resinifera  of  the  ridges,  30 
Euro,  bones  of  the,  found,  361 

TjUIRY,  PORT,  121 

Fascicularia,  found  on  the  South 
Australian  coast,  187,  188,  note 


Fern,  the  common  Australian,  30 
Fern-tree  growing  in  a  cave  from  bottom 

to  top,  358 
Flinders,  Captain,  his  description  of  the 

coast  of  South  Australia,  1 14 
Flints,  layers  of,  in  the  limestone  forma- 
tion, 64.     Origin  of,  65.     Separation 
of  silica,  65.     Origin  of  the  beach 
terraces,  217 

Flora  of  South  Australia,  36,  37.  Its 
correspondence  to  the  secondary  pe- 
riod, 139.  Beauty  of  the  flora  of 
Australia,  267 

Fish  in  a  lake  highly  impregnated  with 
salt,  54      Fossil  remains  of,  found  by 
the  author,  80 
Fissure  caves.     See  Caves 
Foraminifera  in  limestone  formation,  70 
Fossil   cliffs   of   the   great   Australian 

Bight  described  by  Mr.  Eyre,  386 
Fossiliferous  rock  of  part  of  the  coast  of 
Australia,  18.     Extent  of,  in  South 
America,  225 

Fossils  not  found  in  the  South  Austra- 
lian mountains,  except  at  one  or  two 
points,  20.  Fossils  found  in  Victoria  ob- 
served to  agree  with  those  of  Europe, 
22.  Fossils  of  the  upper  limestone,  6 1 . 
Singular  fossils  found  near  Penola, 
75.  List  of  fossils  found  on  the  banks 
of  the  Murray,  by  Captain  Sturt,  105. 
Fossils  to  the  eastward  of  the  boundary 
line  between  Victoria  and  South  Aus- 
tralia, 120.  Evidence  of  transport  of 
fossils,  134.  Absence  of  fossils  in 
the  Guichen  Bay  deposits,  152,  153 
178 

Fossils,  list  of,  found  in   South  Aus- 
tralia :  — 

—  Asteroidea,  78 

—  Astrasa,  187 

—  Astro -Pecten,  83 

—  Brachiopoda,  79 

—  Bryozoa,  73,  78 

—  Cellepora  gambierensis,  74,  85,91, 

97,  105,  333 

—  Cephalopoda,  80 

—  Cerithium,  190 

—  Cidaris,  81 

—  Cirripedia,  78 

—  Clypeaster,  77 


396 


INDEX. 


Fossils  —  continued  :  — 

—  Conchifera,  105 

—  Cristellaria,  71 

—  Cruziana  cucurbita,  21,  note 

—  Dimyaria,  79 

—  Echinidae,  81 

—  Echinoidea,  77 

—  Echinolampus,  77 

—  Entomostraca,  78 

—  Entomostraca  brachiopoda,  73. 

—  Fascicularia,  187,  188,  note 

—  Foraminifera,  70,  77,  189 

—  Gasteropoda,  79 

—  Globigerina  bulloi'des,  72,  note 

—  Glossopteris  Browniana,  22 

—  Lunulites,  75 

—  Mollusca,  106 

—  Monomyaria,  79 

—  Monostega,  71 

—  Murex  asper,  84 

—  Nautilus  ziczac,  83 

—  Operculina  arabica,  72,  note 

—  Pectens,  74,  76,  333 

—  Pecten  Jacobaeus,  160 

—  Pentamenus  oblongus,  20 

—  Pisces,  80 

—  Polyozoa,  84 

—  Kadiata,  105 

—  Salicornaria,  105 

—  Spatangus  Forbesii,  75, 83, 165 

—  Terebratula  compta,  74,  121 

—  Trochus,  77 

—  Turritella  terebralis,  83 

—  Venus  esalbata,  190 

—  Zoophytes,  77 

Francis,  St.,  Isles  of,  formation  of  the, 

119 
Fringing  reefs  of  coral,  125 


n  AMBIER,  MOUNT,  native  wells  near, 
vF  63.  Caves  near,  64.  Fossils  found 
at,  72  and  note,  74.  Upper  crag  forma- 
tion, 160.  Oyster-shell  bed  at,  160, 
161.  Description  of  the  extinct  crater 
of,  227.  Captain  Stnrt's  observations, 
227.  M.  Blandowski's  maps  of  the 
three  lakes,  227.  Description  of  the 
three  lakes,  228.  And  of  the  crater 
walls,  235.  The  oldest  crater  oblite- 
rated, 237.  What  kind  of  eruption  has 


taken  place  to  produce  the  appearances 
presented,  237.  Its  small  extent,  239. 
Causes  of  the  non-appearance  of  ejec- 
tamenta  on  the  east  side  of  the  crater, 
240.  The  promontories  or  ridges 
jutting  out  from  the  walls,  241.  Ac- 
count  of  an  active  volcano  resembling 
Mount  Gambier,  248.  Underground 
flow  of  the  lava  of  Mount  Gambier, 
250.  Number  of  craters  at,  253. 
Three  periods  of  their  activity,  254. 
Age  of  the  crater,  255.  Fossils  in 
the  rocks  of,  255.  Peculiarities  of 
the  strata  of,  255.  Period  of  the 
last  eruption,  256.  Minerals  found 
in  the  craters,  258.  Review  of  the 
past  of  Mount  Gambier,  259.  Re- 
sume' of  its  geological  features,  263. 
Beautiful  view  from  its  summit,  264. 
Connection  between  Mounts  Gambier 
and  Shanck,  279.  Hilly  country 
round  Mount  Gambier,  and  probable 
causes,  280 

Gasteropoda,  fossil  found  by  the  author, 
79 

Geology,  importance  of  the  science  of,  to 
man,  2 — 4 

George,  Lake,  195.  Description  of  it, 
201 

German  Flat,  the  quagmire  so  called, 
203.  As  seen  from  Mount  Muir- 
head,  204. 

Glaciers,  traces  of  the  action  of,  in  the 
South  Australian  chain  of  mountains, 
20 

Glenelg  river,  15,  27,  28,  note.  Cha- 
racter of  the  plains  through  which  it 
runs,  41.  Upper  crag  formation  at 
the  mouth  of  the,  159.  Evidence  it 
affords  of  the  upheaval  of  the  coast, 
209 

Globigerina  bulloides,  72,  note 

Glossopteris  Browniana,  iu  the  coal  beds 
of  Victoria,  22 

Goa,  Mount,  in  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
description  of  the  volcano  of,  248 

Gold  found  in  the  South  Australian 
range,  21.  Trap  rock  not  always  an 
indication  of  the  existence  of,  297. 
History  of  the  formation  in  which 
gold  is  found  in  Victoria,  297.  Clunes 


INDEX. 


397 


Mine,  near  Ballarat,  297.     Gold  of 

South  Australia,  298 
Graham,  Mount,  black  mud  swamp  at 

the  foot  of,  210,287,364 
Granite  rocks  in  the  Murray  river,  118, 

1 19.     In  South  Australia,  298 
Grant  Bay,  extent  and  boundaries  of, 

153,  154.     Boulders  of  trap  rock  in, 

154.  Strata  of  the  coast  described, 
154,  et  seq. 

Grant,  Cape,  153.  Rocks  at,  154. 
Twisted  concretions  in  the  cliffs  at, 
163.  Their  origin,  164 

Guacharo,  the  Cueva  del,  Humboldt's 
description  of,  316 

Guichen  Bay,  26.  Fresh -water  lagoon 
near,  53.  Thick  growth  of  the  com- 
mon Chara  in  the,  53.  Description 
of  the  rocks  at,  1 50.  Their  extent, 
150.  Their  origin,  151.  Material 
of  which  the  rocks  are  composed,  152. 
Wild  scenery  of  the-coast,  1 53.  Ab- 
sence of  fossils  at,  1 52, 1 53.  Twisted 
concretions  in  the  cliffs  at,  163.  Their 
origin,  164.  Caves  at,  169.  'Blow- 
holes' at,  169.  Sand-hills  at,  171. 
Genera  of  shells  found  at,  194 

Gum  of  the  Eucalyptus  resinifera,  30. 
Of  the  wattle,  30 

Gum-trees  of  the  ridges  in  South  Aus- 
tralia, 29 

Gypsum,  crystals  of,  in  the  mud  of  the 
lakes,  69 


TTALF-WAY  GULLY,  probably  the 

-LL     remains  of  a  reef,  131 

Hawdon,  Lake,  193.  Description  of, 
195, 198 

Heat,  volcanic  sand  acting  as  a  non- 
conductor of,  245.  Nasmyth's  ex- 
periment, 245 

Heath,  character  and  extent  of,  in  South 
Australia,  32 

Henderson  Island,  Lyell's  description  of, 
quoted,  156 

Hills,  character  of  the  six  chains  of,  214 

Honeysuckle  country,  the,  of  South 
Australia,  33,  42 

Hopeless,  Mount,  110 

Hyaena  caves,  313 


Hypsiprymnns,  bones  of,  found  in  Wel- 
lington Valley,  380 


ICARI,  existing  on  living  polypifers,  93. 
Igneous  rocks  of  South  Australia, 
226,  et  seq.  See  Volcanoes 

Infusorioe,  the,  in  the  swamps,  52. 
Silica  in  the  shells  of,  65. 

Inundations,  former,  in  South  Austra- 
lia, 343,  345 

Investigator's  Straits,  112 

Iron  pyrites  in  the  upper  limestone,  67 

Island,  Bathurst,  15 

—  Henderson,  156 

—  Kangaroo,  15,  112 

—  Keeling,  93 

—  Julia  Percy,  292 

—  Melville,  1 5 
Islands,  coral,  13,  14 
— -  St.  Francis,  119 


JAFFA,  CAPE,  reef  of  rocks  at,  1 62. 
tJ      Upheaval  of  the  reefs  at,  207 
James,  Mr.  G.  P.  R.,  his  romantic  ac- 
count of  Mount  Gambler,  227. 
Jervis,  Cape,  15,  16,  110.    Geological 

formation  of,  17 

Johnstone's  Station,  cave  at,  366 
Julia  Percy  Island,  an  extinct  volcano, 
292 


KANGAROO  ISLAND,  15,  112 
Kangaroo  bones  in  the  swamps,  55. 
Those  found  in  the  Wellington  Valley 
much  larger  than  those  of  any  existing 
species,  341.  Bones  of  a  large  kan- 
garoo, 361 

Kapunda,  town  of,  6.     Mine  of,  6 
Katavothra  of  the  Morea,  their  similarity 
to  the  caves  at  Mosquito  Plains,  344 
Keeling  Island,  white  mud  of,  93 
Kentucky,  mammoth  caves  of,  317 
Kilauea,  description  of  the  active  volcano 

of,  248 

Kirkdale  Cave,  in  Yoikshire,  312 
Kooringa,  rise  of  the  town  of,  5 
Kosciusko,  Mount,  its  height,  19,  note 


398 


INDEX. 


T  ACEPEDE  BAY,  upper  crag   for- 

J-^    mation  at,  159 

Lagoons,  fresh-water,  of  the  coast,  196. 

Limestone,  formation  of  the,  197 
Lake  Albert,  204,  205 

—  Alexandrina,  204 

—  Blue,  228,  243,  250,  253 

—  Bonney,  196 

—  Colac,  55 

—  Coorong,  the,  195,  197 

-  Edward,  283 

—  Eliza,  69.  195 

—  George,  195,  201          •. 

-  Hawdon,  193,  195,  198 

—  Leake,  283 

—  Middle,  230 

—  near  Mount  Shanck,  266 

—  Roy,  51 

-  St.  Glair,  195,  199 

-  Torrens,  110,  113,  117 

-  Valley,  231,  240 

Lakes,  two  remarkable  for  their  deposits, 
53.  Crystals  of  gypsum  and  natron 
found  on  the  shores  of  the,  69.  Lakes 
on  the  coast  of  South  Australia,  re- 
marks on  the,  195,  et  seq. 

Lannes,  Cape,  upper  crag  at,  1 52 

Lap-lap,  the  fish  of  the  swamps  so  called, 
50 

Lava  of  Mount  Gambier,  250.  Of  Mount 
Shanck,  267 

Lawrence  Rock,  an  extinct  crater,  292. 
Nature  of  the  strata  of,  292.  Over- 
laid by  crag,  293. 

Leake,  Lake,  283.  Character  of  the 
banks,  283.  Evidences  of  volcanic 
action,  283 

Leake's  Bluff,  264,  284.  Geological 
character  of,  285.  Fault  at,  285,  286 

Limestone  ridges,  30 

Limestone  Ridge  Station,  caves  at,  365 

Limestone  '  biscuits,'  42,  43.  Their 
origin,  44 

Limestone,  the  upper,  60.  Horizontality 
of  the  beds,  60.  Distribution  of  fos- 
sils in  the,  61.  Table  of  fossils  found 
in  the,  77,  et  seq.  Age  of  the  beds, 
82.  Position  of  the  beds,  as  reported 
by  Dr.  Busk,  84.  Their  probable 
identity  with  the  lower  crag  of  Eng- 
land, 85,  86.  Similarity  of  limestone 


to  coral  rock,  97.  Extent  of  the  for- 
mation in  South  Australia,  100,  et 
seq.  Boundaries  of  the  district,  103. 
Fossiliferous  limestone  on  each  side  of 
Lake  Torrens,  113.  Extent  of  the 
formation  to  the  eastward,  120.  The 
Tasmanian  beds,  122.  Origin  of  the 
limestone  formation,  124.  Subsidence, 
124.  Darwin's  theory,  125.  Probable 
remains  of  reefs  at  Swede's  Flat  and 
Half-way  Gulley,  131.  Bed  of  oyster- 
shells  on  the  top  of  nearly  every  lime- 
stone cliff,  160,  161.  Limestone 
concretions  at  Cape  Jaffa  Reef,  162. 
Features  of  the  upper  limestone,  1 89. 
Shell  deposits  of  this  formation,  190. 
The  limestone  of  Guichen  Bay,  194. 
Of  the  lagoons,  197.  The  six  chains 
of  hills,  220.  Causes  of  caves  in 
limestone,  300.  See  Caves 
Limestone,  coralline,  86.  Coralline  fos- 
siliferous  limestone  composing  the 
rocks  of  the  caves,  333 
Limnea  stagnalis  in  the  swamps,  51 
Lincoln,  Port,  metamorphic  rocks  about, 

119 

Lithodomi,  214.  Borings  of,  at  Mount 
Gambier,  160.  And  at  other  places, 
174 

Lofty,  Mount,  20.     Rocks  of,  59 
Lunulites  found  near  Penola,  75 


MACROPUS  TITAN,  bones  of  the, 
357,  note 

Macropus  Athos  and  Titan,  bones  of, 
found  in  Wellington  Valley,  378 

Magnesia,  large  quantity  of,  in  the  'Bis- 
cay Country,'  48.  Magnesian  fer- 
mentation, 48 

Magpie,  native  (Gymnorrhinaleuconota). 
56 

Mallee  scrub  of  South  Australia,  33, 
Its  character  and  extent,  33 

Mammalia,  low  organisation  of  the,  of 
Australia,  140 

Mammoth  caves  of  Kentucky  and  Ten- 
nessee, 317 

Man,  developement  of  an  approach  to  a 
more  complex  organisation  ending  in, 
137 


INDEX. 


399 


Marsupialia  of  Australia,  140 

M' Arthur,  Mr.  Donald,  singular  under- 
ground sounds  heard  at  his  station,  57 

M'Donnell,  Port,  sheets  of  flint  layers  at, 
64 

M'Intyre,  Mount,  264,  288 

Melaleuca,  the  tea-tree  of  the  colonists, 
228 

Melbourne,  its  appearance  in  1850  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  present  day,  3. 
Earthquakes  at,  213 

Melicerita,  genus  of,  peculiar  to  the  ter- 
tiary beds  of  South  Australia,  85 

Melville  Island,  15 

Meredith's  Station,  cave  at,  366 

Mesembryanthemum  of  the  coast  at 
Guichen  Bay,  153 

Metals  found  in  the  South  Australian 
range,  21 

Middle  Lake,  of  Mount  Gambier,  230. 
Nature  of  the  eruption  from  the  crater 
of,  242 

Minerals  found  in  the  South  Australian 
range,  21.  Found  in  the  craters  of 
Mount  Gambier,  258 

Mitchell's  Cave,  359.  Its  deep  sea-blue 
pool  of  clear  water,  35  9.  Sand-pipes, 
359 

Moleside  rivulet, in  Tasmania,  122.  Cha- 
racter (if  the  country  near  the,  122 

Mollusca,  fresh-water,  of  the  swamps  of 
the  South-Eastern  District,  51 

Mollusca,  fossil,  found  on  the  banks  of 
the  Murray,  106 

Monomyaria,  fossil,  79 

Monostega  of  the  limestone  rock,  7 1 

Morea,  caves  in  the,  306 

Mosquito  Plains,  absence  of  trees  in 
parts  of  the,  49.  Probable  causes  of 
this,  50.  Strata  of  the,  76.  Coral 
of  the  caves,  91.  Fossils  of  the, 
133.  Caves  at,  323.  First  cave, 
323.  Second  cave,  325.  Third 
cave,  327.  Dried  corpse  of  a  native 
there,  329.  Robertson's  parlour, 
331.  Connection  between  it  and 
deeper  caves,  332.  Bones  in  the 
first  cave,  334. 

Mosquito  Swamp,  364 

Moss  coral.     See  Bryozoa 

Mount  Burr,  253,  287 


Mount  Edward,  288 

—  Gambier,  63,  64,  72,  227,  290 

—  Graham,  210,  287,  364 

—  Hopeless,  110 

—  Lofty,  20,  59 

—  M'Intyre,  288 

—  Muirbead,  204, 286 

—  Napier,  1 57 

—  Rouse,  157 

—  Shanck,  63,  250,  261,  290,  365 
Mountains,   the   Australian   Cordillera, 

18.    The  South  Australian  Chain,  19. 
Their  dimensions,  20 

—  Barossa,  1 1 0 

—  chain   from  Cape   Jervis  to  Mount 
Hopeless,  110 

Muirhead,  Mount,  286.  Evidences  of 
volcanic  action,  287 

Munbannar,  caves  near  the  town  of, 
365 

Murchison,  Sir  Roderick,  his  prediction 
as  to  the  auriferous  regions  of  Aus- 
tralia, 4 

Murex  asper,  84 

Murray  river,  27.  Fossil  bones  of 
Cetacea  found  on  the  banks  of  the, 
80.  Capt.  Sturt's  survey  of  the, 
104.  List  of  fossils  found  by  Capt. 
Sturt  on  the,  105.  Description  of 
the  cliffs,  106.  Country  to  the 
north  of  the  river,  109.  Extent  of 
the  formation  in  a  westerly  direction, 
110.  Fossils  found  on  the,  133. 
Lakes  lying  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river,  204.  Evidence  it  affords  of 
the  upheaval  of  the  Australian  coast, 
209.  Granite  of  the  bed  of  the, 
298 

Murray  Scrub,  the  country  so  called, 
111 

Myrmecobius,  the,  339 


NAMES  of  places,  native,  365,  note 
Napier,  Mount,  157 
Natron  found  on  the  shores  of  the  lakes, 

69 
Nautilus  ziczac,  fossil,  of  England  and 

South  Australia,  83 

Negro,  Rio,  great  sandstone  plateau  of, 
222 


400 


INDEX. 


Norfolk  Island,  flora  of,  139 
Nummulites,  absence  of,  in  the  upper 
limestone,  75 


OAK,  the  shea,  of  South   Australia, 
30 
Olivine  found  in  the  craters  of  Mount 

Gambler,  258 

Operculina  Arabica,  72,  note 
Otway,  Cape,  121 
Oxyrrliinus  Woodsii,  of  Mount  Gambler, 

133 
Oyster-shells,  abundance  of,  on  the  tops 

of  the  cliffs  of  the  Murray  river,  109. 

Bed    of,  on  the  top  of   nearly  every 

limestone  cliff,  160.     Period   of  the 

deposit,  161. 


PACIFIC  OCEAN,  coral  islands  of 
the,  125.  Subsidence  of  a  large 
portion  of  the  bed  of  the,  135 

Paisley,  New  Cape,  114,  116 

Paludina,  banks  of  the  shells  of,  at 
Lake  Roy,  51 

Pampean  formation,  extent  of  the,  225 

Paviland  Cave,  314 

Peak  of  Derbyshire,  322 

Pectens,  74,  76 

Penola,  limestone  ridge  at,  31.  Fresh- 
water mollusca  found  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of,  51.  Singular  fossils 
found  near,  75.  Caves  near,  323. 
See  Caves 

Pentamenus  oblongns,  found  near  Ade- 
laide, 20 

Phalangesta,  bones  of,  found  in  Welling- 
ton Valley,  380 

Phascogale  penicillata,  or  native  squir- 
rel, bones  of,  found  in  caves,  339 

Phascogale  pygmaea,  339 

Phascolomys,  bones  of,  found  in  Welling- 
ton Valley,  381 

Plain,  extensive,  of  the  South-Eastern 
District,  2  7 

Plain,  strata  of  the  South-Eastern  Dis- 
trict, 58 


Pleiocene  strata  of  Rome,  Sir  C.  Lyell  on 

the,  87 

Polyozoa  of  the  tertiary  beds,  84 
Porphyry  hills  in  the  north  of  the  South 

Australian  District,  27 
Portland,  town  of,  its  cold  and  sombre 

appearance,  26 
Portland  Bay,  26.     Coralline  limestone 

at,  121.     Fossils  at,  identical  with 

those  of  Mount  Gambier,  121,  133. 

Basaltic  rocks   on   the  tops  of  the 

cliffs  at,  157 
Portland,   Victoria,    veins  of  soapstone 

at,  65.      Shell   deposits  near,   191, 

Evidence    of    subterranean  volcanic 

action  at,  29 1 

Post-Pleiocene  formation.      See  Lime- 
stone, upper. 
Primary  formation  of  the   eastern   and 

western  sides  of  Australia,  16,  18 
Pteris  esculenta,  or  common  Australian 

fern,  30.  358 
Punch-bowl  basin  of  Mount   Gambier, 

232.  Conjectures  as  to  its  origin,  233 
Pyrites,  iron,  in  the  upper  limestone,  67 


Q 


UAGMIRE  of  German  Flat,  203 


T)  ADI  ATA,  fossil,  found  on  the  banks 

XI     of  the  Murray,  105 

Reedy  Creek,  an  embryo  river,  2 1 0 — 2 1 2 

Reef,  the  great  Barrier,  of  the  west 
side  of  Australia,  22.  Darwin's  de- 
scription of  the,  23 

Reefs,  Cape  Jaffa,  162.  Singular  ap- 
pearance of  some  of  them,  1 62 

Reefs,  coralline,  91.  Description  of  a 
reef,  94.  Of  the  Pacific,  different 
kinds  of,  125.  Why  no  remains  of 
reefs  are  found,  130.  Probably  some 
remains  at  Swede's  Flat  and  Half-way 
Gulley,  131.  Causes  fatal  to  the 
progress  of,  148.  Subsequent  history 
of,  181.  Upheaval  of  the  reefs  at 
Rivoli  Bay,  206.  And  at  Cape  Jaffa, 
207 


INDEX. 


401 


Ridges  formed  on  the  east  shores  of  the 
swamps,  29.  Different  kinds  of,  30. 
Vegetation  of,  30. 

River: — 

—  Glenelg,  15,  27,  28,  note,  41,  159, 

209 

—  Murray,  27,  80,  104,  209,  298 

—  Wannon,  210 

—  Wimmera,  27 

Rivers  of  South  Australia,  proof  they 
afford  of  the  upheaval  of  the  coast 
now  going  on,  208.  A  river  in  an 
early  stage  of  developement,  210. 
Underground  rivers,  122,  306.  The 
present  banks  of  rivers  formerly  the 
beds,  311 

Rivoli  Bay,  upper  crag  formation  at,  159. 
Recent  alterations  in  the  soundings 
at,  206 

Robe  Town,  its  cheerful  aspect,  26 

Rocks  of  the  South-Eastern  District,  58. 
Character  of  the  rocks  of  South  Aus- 
tralia, 58.' 

Rodents  of  Australia,  140 

Rome,  Sir  C.  Lyell,  on  the  Pleiocene 
strata  of,  87 

Rouse,  Mount,  157 

Roy,  Lake,  banks  of,  fresh-water  mol- 
lusca  at,  51 


SALT  CREEK,  364 
Salt-pans,  or '  Salinas,'  in  the  South- 
Eastern  District,  69.    Origin  of  these 
deposits,  69.     Lake  Eliza,  69 

Salt,  rock,  found  in  the  upper  limestone, 
67.  Suggestions  as  to  its  origin, 
63 

Sand  of  the  South-Eastern  District,  37. 
Different  kinds  of,  37.  Theory  of  the 
origin  of  sand,  39.  Composed  en- 
tirely of  the  frustules  of  Diatomaceas, 
52 

Sand  dunes,  167.  Immense  number  of, 
round  the  coast  of  South  Australia, 
166.  Contain  no  perfect  fossils  nor 
signs  of  stratification,  167.  Sand- 
hills at  Guichen  Bay  and  Cape  Bridge- 
water,  171.  Interminable  sand  dunes 
of  the  coast  of  Australia,  183.  Cha- 


racter of  the  sand,  183.  Its  extent 
inland,  183.  The  sand  formation  of 
Cornwall,  184.  Origin  of  the  sand 
on  the  South  Australian  coast,  187. 
And  of  calcareous  sandstone,  188. 
Its  composition,  188.  Shell  deposits, 
190.  Extent  of  the  sandy  coast,  219. 
Different  kinds  of  the  sand,  219.  Im- 
mense size  of  some  of  the  dunes,  219. 
Appearance  of  the  dunes  on  windy 
days,  219.  Encroachment  of  the  sand 
on  the  land,  220.  No  indication  of 
the  formation  of  the  sand  into  stone, 
220.  Trees  buried  in  the  sand,  221. 
Sandstone  formation  of  the  coast  below 
the  sand,  222.  Why  so  associated 
222 

Sandhurst,  rise  of,  4 

Sand- pipes  of  the  upper  limestone,  61. 
Origin  of,  62.  Those  exposed  in 
Mitchell's  Cave,  359 

Sandstone,  ferruginous,  of  Cape  Yorke 
and  Arnhem's  Land,  17.  Calcareous, 
of  Guichen  Bay,  150.  Of  Grant  Bay, 
155.  Formation  of  sandstone  on  the 
coast  below  the  sand,  222.  Why  so 
associated,  223 

Sandy  ridges,  31.     Vegetation  of,  31 

Scenery,  dependence  of,  on  geology,  25 

Scrub,  character  and  extent  of,  in  South 
Australia,  33 

Sea,  temperature  of  the,  in  former  times 
greater  than  now,  134 

Sea -water,  colour  of,  179 

Secondary  rocks,  absence  of,  in  Australia, 
140.  State  of  the  earth  after  the 
secondary  period  in  Europe,  141 

Shanck,  Mount, native  wells  near,  63.  An 
extinct  volcano,  underground  flow  of 
the  lava  of,  250.  Description  of  the 
extinct  volcano  of,  261,  263,  el  seq. 
Country  around  it,  263.  Beautiful 
little  lake  near,  266,  269.  Vol- 
canic bombs,  268.  The  great 
cone  cf  Mount  Shanck,  269.  Its  steep 
ascent,  269.  View  of  the  crater 
from  the  top,  269.  Its  shape,  270. 
remains  of  a  former  crater  on  the 
wast  side,  270.  Trees  growing  inside 
and  outside  the  basin  of  the  older 
crater,  271.  Composition  of  the  more 


D  D 


402 


INDEX. 


recent  crater  wall,  272.  Bottom  of 
the  crater,  272,  273.  Peculiarity  in 
the  layers  of  ash,  273.  No  apparent 
outlet  for  the  lava,  273.  Stream 
of  lava  on  the  north,  273.  Curious 
mode  in  which  it  is  heaped,  274.  A 
current  from  the  ancient  crater,  275. 
Causes  of  the  heaping  up,  276.  Con- 
nection between  Mount  Gambier  and 
Mount  Shanck,  279.  Dismal  view 
of  the  coast  line  from  Mount  Shanck, 
281.  Cave  at,  365 
Shea  Oak,  the,  30 

Shell  deposits  on  the  coast,  190.  Lo- 
calities in  which  they  occur,  191,  et 
aeq.  Their  extent  inland,  193.  Ob- 
servations on  those  found  at  Guichen 
Bay,  194 
Silica.  See  Flint 

Silurian  rocks  from  Cape  Yorke  to  Port 
»Phillip,  18 

Soapstone,  veins  of,  at  Portland,  in  Vic- 
toria, 65 

Soil,   different  kind  of,  on   the   South 
Australian  ridges,  30.     Varieties  of, 
in  the  South-Eastern  District,  38 
Sounds,  singular,  of  the  swamps  which 

have  an  underground  drainage,  57 
Spatangus  Forbesii,  75,  83 
Spencer's  Gulf,  15,  16,  112.     Evidence 
at,  of  periods  of  upheaval  and  of  rest, 
213 

Sponges,  silica  in,  65 
Squirrel,  native,  bones  of,  found  in  cases, 

339 

Stalactite,  an  enormous,  324.    Of  the 
second  cavern  at  Mosquito  Plains,  32  6 
Stalactites,  how  formed,  348 
Stalagmites,  323 

St.  Clair,  Lake,  195.  Description  of,  199 
Steam  craters  of  volcanoes,  269 
Stone  Hut  range  of  hills,  shell  deposits 

on,  193 

St.  Paul,  Island  of,  causes  of  the  differ- 
ence in  the  height  on  the  eastern  and 
western  sides,  241 

Stratification,  singular,  of  the  coast  at 

Guichen  Bay,  153.     At  Grant  Bay, 

154.     No  signs  of  stratification  in 

the  sand  dunes,  167 

Sturt,  Captain,  his.  survey  of  the  river 


Murray,  104.  His  account  of  the 
formation  to  the  north,  112.  His 
observations  on  the  extinct  crater  of 
Mount  Garnbier,  227 

Swamps  of  the  South-Eastern  District, 
27.  The  Dismal  Swamp,  27.  Their 
localities  and  peculiarities,  28.  Fertile 
ridges,  29.  Swamps  in  the  grassy 
plains,  41.  Peculiarities  of  swamps, 
50.  The  fish  Lap-lap,  50.  The 
cray-fish  of  the  plains,  43,  51.  Fresh- 
water mollusca,  51.  Two  swamps  re- 
markable for  their  deposits,  53.  Bones 
on  the  banks,  54.  Singular  sounds 
connected  with  the  swamps  which 
have  an  underground  drainage,  57. 
The  German  Flat,  203.  Black  mud 
swamp  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Graham, 
210.  Mosquito  Swamp,  364 

Swede's  Flat,  probably  some  remains  of 
reefs  at,  131.  Description  of  the, 
309 

Subsidence  of  the  limestone  formation, 
124,  et  seq.  Subsidence  coincident 
with  volcanic  disturbance,  251.  A 
crater  subsidence  theory,  252 

Superior,  Lake,  calcareous  sandstone 
near,  222 


rFAPLEY'S  HILL,  near  Adelaide,  for- 

J-     mation  of,  208 

Tatiara,  probable  remains  of  reefs  in  the, 
131 

Tasmania,  mineral  wealth  of,  6.  Fos- 
siliferous  limestone  formation  in,  122 

Tea-tree  (Melaleuca  paludosa),  36,  222 

Tennessee,  mammoth  caves  of,  317 

Terebratula  compta,  74 

Terraces,  sea- beach,  formation  of,  215. 
Levels  of  the,  218 

Tertiary  beds  in  the  centre  of  Australia, 
16,  18.  Tertiary  formation  and  its 
fossils,  60.  et  seq.  Tertiary  strata  of 
Borne,  87.  Of  Asia  Minor,  88. 

Tetratheca  ciliata  of  the  heath  country, 
37 

Torrens,  Lake,  110,  113,  117 

Trap  rock  of  part  of  the  coast  of  Aus- 
tralia, 18.  Boulders  of,  in  Grant 


INDEX. 


403 


Bay,  154.  Trap  rocks  of  the  coast 
of  the  Bay,  156.  Amygdaloidal  cha- 
racter of  the  trap,  1 58.  Trap  rock 
of  Leake's  Bluff,  285.  Trap  rock 
not  always  an  indication  of  the  exist- 
ence of  gold,  297.  Causes  of  caves 
in  trap  rock,  300 

Trees,  distribution  of,  in  the  South- 
Eastern  district,  49.  Fossil,  of  the 
crag,  not  trees,  but  magnesian  lime- 
stone infiltrations,  165 — 168.  Trees 
buried  in  the  sand,  221.  Not  fos- 
silised, 222 

Trochus,  77 

Tunicata,  fossil,  found  on  the  banks  of 
the  Murray,  105 

Turritella  terebralis,  83 


TTPHEAVAL  of  the  Australian  coast, 
*-*      205.     Singular  instances  within 
the  last  few  years,  207.     Six  periods 
of  rest  in  the  upheaval,  215 


y ALLEY  LAKE  of  Mount  Gambier, 
»  231.  The  crater  walls  surround- 
ing the  lake,  231.  Mode  of  eruption 
of  the  crater,  241.  Subsidence  co- 
incident with  volcanic  disturbance  at, 
251 

Van  Diemen's  Gulf,  15 

Vansittart's  Cave,  357.  Wonderful 
clearness  of  the  water  in,  357.  No 
bones  perceptible  at,  358.  Fern- trees 
at  the  entrance,  358 

Vegetation  of  the  South  Australian 
ridges,  30 

Venus  exalbata  in  the  recent  limestone, 
190 

Vesuvius,  bottom  of  the  crater  of, 
272 

Victoria,  gold  fields  of,  4.  Geological 
government  survey  of,  7.  Geological 
results  of  the  gold-digging  in,  21. 
Its  fossils  agreeing  with  those  of 
Europe,  22.  Coal  beds  of,  22.  Boun- 
dary line  between,  and  South  Aus- 


tralia, 120.  Immense  volcanic  district 
of,  290.  History  of  the  formation  in 
which  gold  is  found,  297 

Vincent,  Gulf  St.,  15,  111 

Volcanoes,  no  active  and  few  extinct,  in 
Australia,  224,  222.  Description  of 
the  extinct  crater  of  Mount  Gambier, 
227,  et  seq.  A  theory  of  crater  sub- 
sidence, 252.  Description  of  Mount 
Shanck,  261,  et  seq.  Dissimilarity 
in  volcanoes,  261.  Reasons  for  mul- 
tiplying the  records  of  volcanic  action, 
262.  Volcanic  flora  of  Australia, 
267.  Volcanic  bombs,  268.  Craters 
of  steam  and  ashes  by  the  sides  of 
volcanoes,  269.  Appearances  pre- 
sented by  the  bottoms  of  the  craters  of 
extinct  and  active  volcanoes,  272. 
Curious  mode  in  which  the  lava  stream 
of  Mount  Shanck  is  heaped,  274.  The 
smaller  volcanoes,  282.  Crater  lakes, 
283,  et  seq.  Connection  which  existed 
between  the  volcanoes  of  the  South- 
EasternDistrict,288.  Supposed  causes 
of  volcanoes,  289.  Igneous  reservoirs, 

290.  Line  of  disturbance   probably 
connected  with  the  Victoria  volcanic 
district,  290.   Theory  of  the  existence 
of  volcanoes  in  a  recent  tertiary  period, 

291.  Evidence  of  subterranean  vol- 
canic action  of  Portland,  291.    Law- 
rence rock,  292.    Julia  Percy  Island, 

292.  Evidence   of  periods   of  dis- 
turbance and  rest,  293.     Von  Buch's 
theory  of  craters  of  elevation,  and  the 
controversy  which  resulted,  294 

Volcanoes,  extinct : — 

—  Gambier,  63,  64,  72,  227,  290 

—  Napier,  157 

—  Eouse,  157 

—  Shanck,  63,  250,  261,  365 

—  smaller  craters,  282 


WALES,  New  South,  gold-fields  of, 
5.    Geological  examination  of,  7 
Wannon  river,  evidence  it  affords  of  the 

upheaval  of  the  coast,  210 
Water-level,  facts  with  reference  to  the, 
in  South  Australia,  179. 


INDEX. 


Wellington  Valley,  Sir  Thomas  Mit- 
chell's description  of  the  caves  at, 
quoted,  373.  Professor  Owen's  report 
on  the  bones  found  in  the  caves,  378. 

Wells,  native,  63.   Origin  of  the,  63,  64. 

Well-shaped  holes  in  the  country  be- 
tween Mount  Gambier  and  Mount 
Shanck,  265 

Wimmera  river,  27 

Wombat  bones  in  the  swamps,  55 


YANTHORRHCEA  AUSTRALIS,  36, 
-A-     140 


PENINSULA,  15,   111. 
JL      Geological  formation  of,  17 
Yorke,  Cape,  geological  formation  of,  1 7 


ITAMLE,  139 

Li     Zoophytes,  fossil,  77 


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